Evgeny Ilyin - psychology of will. Ilyin E

Evgeny Pavlovich Ilyin

Psychology of individual differences

Foreword

The book provides basic information on the psychology of individual differences, considered in differential psychology and differential psychophysiology. The problems of differential psychophysiology were outlined by me in my previously published book “Differential Psychophysiology” (2001). This book is partially included in this textbook, however, in a restructured form and with some additions and abbreviations, which is dictated by the volume of the latter. Thus, the “Psychology of individual differences” does not include part 5 “Functional asymmetry as a problem of differential psychophysiology”; those interested in this problem can refer to the publication cited above. Differences between men and women are also not considered. This problem has received a fairly complete coverage in my other book "Differential psychophysiology of men and women" (2002).

The new chapters of this textbook are mainly devoted to issues that are considered in differential psychology.

It should immediately be clarified what individual differences will be discussed in this book. These are differences in the properties of temperament and personality, which determine not so much quantitative as qualitative differences in the behavior and activities of people. Qualitative differences are an expression of quantitative ones, but the latter are often so great that people, being at different poles of the continuum (i.e., when one or another psychological or psychophysiological parameter manifests itself to an unequal degree), behave and work differently.

At the same time, with the existing differences, a qualitative (typical) similarity of people is also found - in the degree of expression of certain parameters, in the way of behavior, in the style of activity and communication, etc. Being individual, inherent in a particular person, these qualitative differences are also characteristic of others. individuals, that is, they can be called typical. They talk about typical differences when people are divided into strong and weak, kind and greedy, emotional and unemotional, etc. However, for example, quantitative differences are also observed among the strong: one person is strong, but not to the same extent as another, but that one is not like the third one, etc.

B. M. Teplov pointed out the need for a qualitative approach to individual differences. It is the qualitative typical and individual differences between people that are considered in this book. At the same time, we will also talk about their genesis (origin): what is their conditionality - genetic or social, as well as their influence on behavior and the effectiveness of human activity. Accordingly, on the basis of the individual-typical characteristics of a person as an individual and personality, it is possible with a certain degree of probability to predict the characteristics of his behavior, the effectiveness of his activity and create optimal conditions for each person that contribute to such effective activity. This is the practical significance of this section of psychological science, which is obvious to the luminaries of Russian physiology and psychology I. P. Pavlov, B. M. Teplov, and V. S. Merlin.

I will cite an excerpt from the preface by E. A. Klimov to the book by V. S. Merlin “Essay on the integral study of individuality” (1986).

When B. M. Teplov’s laboratory plunged into questions of the physiology of types of higher nervous activity (Boris Mikhailovich himself threw out the phrase that in matters of typology he is now more a physiologist than the physiologies themselves), V. S. Merlin used to say something like this: “Well done, Boris Mikhailovich! He is scolded for his departure from practice, from school, even from psychology, but he is deeply right, because without knowing the real foundations of individual psychological differences, it is really impossible to move into practice” (p. 12).

When writing the book, I adhered to the principle of historicism, that is, I described the stages of development of the doctrine of individual differences in people in sequence, as it actually happened, from the study of generalized characteristics (types of temperament and constitution) to the consideration of particular individual (properties of the nervous system , temperament and personality), then returning again to the generalized - individuality. It would seem that it would be more logical to present the material in a different way - to move from the description of particular characteristics to the presentation of generalized ones, but this path has its drawbacks. In particular, it seems impossible to show the difficulty of forming the positions of scientists of different generations on the problem of individual differences; it would also be difficult to highlight not only the discoveries of psychologists, but also the mistakes they made.

The book consists of five parts. The first deals with various approaches to generalized individual characteristics of a person - types of temperament and personality. The second part is devoted to the features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system, which represent the natural basis of individual differences. The third part deals with individual differences in behavior.

In the fourth part, the effectiveness of human activity is comprehended, depending on its individual characteristics. This part is divided into three sections. The first one is devoted to the problem of abilities and giftedness, fundamental for differential psychology and differential psychophysiology, on which the effectiveness of an individual's activity largely depends. The second section deals with styles of activity and leadership, in which individual characteristics of a person are manifested. The third section contains rich empirical material on the influence of typological features on the success of various types of human activities. In addition to purely theoretical significance (the problem of the relationship between biological and social in human development), knowledge of these facts is also of great practical importance, since on their basis people are (or should be) selected for various areas of professional and sports activities, the optimal one for a given subject is selected. methods of teaching and training, style of activity.

The fifth part of the manual deals with the relationship of individual characteristics with predisposition to various diseases. This issue is little covered in the specialized literature. At least no book on individual differences even mentions it.

It should be emphasized that the proposed manual is intended for those who are already familiar with the basics of psychology, physiology of the nervous system and psychophysiology. Therefore, an unprepared person may experience some difficulties when reading this book.

I tried to show the problem of individual differences not in the form of axiomatic propositions, but to illuminate it in all its complexity, without hiding the contradictions, erroneous judgments that exist in the history of science, in order to encourage the reader to think, to active mental activity and, in the end, to gaining their own point of view on the problem at hand. A large number of references to literary sources is due to my desire to give the provisions expressed in the book scientific validity, argumentation.

The book provides an appendix that provides methods for studying the individual characteristics of a person and an extensive list of references that may be useful to those who want to study the issues presented in the manual in more depth.

I hope that the book will be useful for practical psychologists, physicians, as well as for university teachers of psychology and will contribute to the elimination of the existing gap between the physiological and psychological knowledge acquired by psychologists. At the same time, it may also be of interest to physiologists who study man, helping them to cognize the psychological manifestations of physiological processes. The book can also be of benefit to teachers, because it allows you to understand the natural foundations of the abilities and behavior of students, an individual approach to them in the process of education and upbringing.

Masters of Psychology -

Evgeny Pavlovich Ilyin

Psychology of individual differences

Foreword

The book provides basic information on the psychology of individual differences, considered in differential psychology and differential psychophysiology. The problems of differential psychophysiology were outlined by me in my previously published book “Differential Psychophysiology” (2001). This book is partially included in this textbook, however, in a restructured form and with some additions and abbreviations, which is dictated by the volume of the latter. Thus, the “Psychology of individual differences” does not include part 5 “Functional asymmetry as a problem of differential psychophysiology”; those interested in this problem can refer to the publication cited above. Differences between men and women are also not considered. This problem has received a fairly complete coverage in my other book "Differential psychophysiology of men and women" (2002).

The new chapters of this textbook are mainly devoted to issues that are considered in differential psychology.

It should immediately be clarified what individual differences will be discussed in this book. These are differences in the properties of temperament and personality, which determine not so much quantitative as qualitative differences in the behavior and activities of people. Qualitative differences are an expression of quantitative ones, but the latter are often so great that people, being at different poles of the continuum (i.e., when one or another psychological or psychophysiological parameter manifests itself to an unequal degree), behave and work differently.

At the same time, with the existing differences, a qualitative (typical) similarity of people is also found - in the degree of expression of certain parameters, in the way of behavior, in the style of activity and communication, etc. Being individual, inherent in a particular person, these qualitative differences are also characteristic of others. individuals, i.e. they can be called typical. They talk about typical differences when people are divided into strong and weak, kind and greedy, emotional and unemotional, etc. However, for example, quantitative differences are also observed among the strong: one person is strong, but not to the same extent as another, but that one is not like the third one, etc.

B. M. Teplov pointed out the need quality approach to individual differences. It is the qualitative typical and individual differences between people that are considered in this book. At the same time, we will also talk about their genesis (origin): what is their conditionality - genetic or social, as well as their influence on behavior and the effectiveness of human activity. Accordingly, on the basis of the individual-typical characteristics of a person as an individual and personality, it is possible with a certain degree of probability to predict the characteristics of his behavior, the effectiveness of his activity and create optimal conditions for each person that contribute to such effective activity. This is practical significance of this section of psychological science, obvious to the luminaries of Russian physiology and psychology I. P. Pavlova, B. M. Teplov, V. S. Merlin.

I will cite an excerpt from the preface by E. A. Klimov to the book by V. S. Merlin “Essay on the integral study of individuality” (1986).

When B. M. Teplov’s laboratory plunged into questions of the physiology of types of higher nervous activity (Boris Mikhailovich himself threw out the phrase that in matters of typology he is now more a physiologist than the physiologies themselves), V. S. Merlin used to say something like this: “Well done, Boris Mikhailovich! He is scolded for his departure from practice, from school, even from psychology, but he is deeply right, because without knowing the real foundations of individual psychological differences it is really impossible to move into practice” (p. 12).

When writing the book, I adhered to the principle of historicism, that is, I described the stages of development of the doctrine of individual differences in people in sequence, as it actually happened, from the study of generalized characteristics (types of temperament and constitution) to the consideration of particular individual (properties of the nervous system , temperament and personality), then returning again to the generalized - individuality. It would seem that it would be more logical to present the material in a different way - to move from the description of particular characteristics to the presentation of generalized ones, but this path has its drawbacks. In particular, it seems impossible to show the difficulty of forming the positions of scientists of different generations on the problem of individual differences; it would also be difficult to highlight not only the discoveries of psychologists, but also the mistakes they made.

The book consists of five parts. The first deals with various approaches to generalized individual characteristics of a person - types of temperament and personality. The second part is devoted to the features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system, which represent the natural basis of individual differences. The third part deals with individual differences in behavior.

In the fourth part, the effectiveness of human activity is comprehended, depending on its individual characteristics. This part is divided into three sections. The first one is devoted to the problem of abilities and giftedness, fundamental for differential psychology and differential psychophysiology, on which the effectiveness of an individual's activity largely depends. The second section deals with styles of activity and leadership, in which individual characteristics of a person are manifested. The third section contains rich empirical material on the influence of typological features on the success of various types of human activities. In addition to purely theoretical significance (the problem of the relationship between biological and social in human development), knowledge of these facts is also of great practical importance, since on their basis people are (or should be) selected for various areas of professional and sports activities, the optimal one for a given subject is selected. methods of teaching and training, style of activity.

The fifth part of the manual deals with the relationship of individual characteristics with predisposition to various diseases. This issue is little covered in the specialized literature. At least no book on individual differences even mentions it.

It should be emphasized that the proposed manual is intended for those who are already familiar with the basics of psychology, physiology of the nervous system and psychophysiology. Therefore, an unprepared person may experience some difficulties when reading this book.

I tried to show the problem of individual differences not in the form of axiomatic propositions, but to illuminate it in all its complexity, without hiding the contradictions, erroneous judgments that exist in the history of science, in order to encourage the reader to think, to active mental activity and, in the end, to gaining their own point of view on the problem at hand. A large number of references to literary sources is due to my desire to give the provisions expressed in the book scientific validity, argumentation.

The book provides an appendix that provides methods for studying the individual characteristics of a person and an extensive list of references that may be useful to those who want to study the issues presented in the manual in more depth.

I hope that the book will be useful for practical psychologists, physicians, as well as for university teachers of psychology and will contribute to the elimination of the existing gap between the physiological and psychological knowledge acquired by psychologists. At the same time, it may also be of interest to physiologists who study man, helping them to cognize the psychological manifestations of physiological processes. The book can also be of benefit to teachers, because it allows you to understand the natural foundations of the abilities and behavior of students, an individual approach to them in the process of education and upbringing.

The second edition of the textbook (the previous one was published in 2001) has been revised and supplemented. The book outlines the theoretical and methodological issues of studying the emotions and feelings of a person. The main attention is paid to the analysis of the structure of the emotional sphere and its components: emotional tone, emotions, emotional personality traits, feelings, emotional types. Theories of the emergence of emotions, their functions and role in human life, changes in the emotional sphere in ontogeny and pathology are considered. The manual contains numerous methods for studying various components of the emotional sphere of a person, which can be successfully used both for scientific and practical purposes. The scientific content of almost all chapters of the second edition has been expanded taking into account domestic and foreign studies published over the past 15 years.

The textbook is intended for psychologists, psychophysiologists, teachers, as well as for students and graduate students of psychological and pedagogical faculties...

"Ilyin E.P. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2011. - 701 e.: ill. - (Series "Masters of Psychology").

The book provides basic information but the psychology of individual differences. which are considered in differential psychology and differential psychophysiology.

Particular attention is paid to: various approaches to the generalized individual characteristics of a person - types of temperament and personality: features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system; individual differences in behavior; the effectiveness of human activity, depending on its individual characteristics; connection of individual characteristics with predisposition to various diseases.

The appendix includes methods for studying the individual characteristics of a person and an extensive list of literature that may be useful to those. who would like to delve deeper into the issues presented in the book.

The publication is addressed to practical psychologists, physicians, psychology teachers in universities. It will be of interest to physiologists, as well as teachers, since it allows understanding the natural foundations of the abilities and behavior of students, the need for an individual approach to them in the process of training and education.

Foreword ................................................................ .......ten

Chapter 1 ... 13

1.1. The beginning of the development of ideas about individual-typical differences ............... 13

1.2. The origin of differential psychology as a science ............................... 14

1.3. Differential psychophysiology as a part of differential psychology..................................16

Part one. Types of temperament and personality

Chapter 2.................................20

2.1. The emergence of the doctrine of temperament. Humoral theories of temperament types .............................20

2.2. Description of temperament types by I. Kant .......................... 24

2.3. W. Wundt's new approach to temperament.......................25

2.4. Constitutional Approach to Temperament.......................26

2.5. Genetic theory of temperament types by K. Conrad.................................34

2.6. The ideas of I. P. Pavlov and his students about the types of temperament ..... 38

2.7. Psychological (factorial) theories of temperament.................................46

2.8. Typology of C. Jung.......................................51

2.9. Tina of temperament (accentuation of character) but K. Leon guard.........53

Chapter 3. New approaches to the study of typological differences between people...............55

3.1. Ideas about the temperament of G. Iseik .............................. 55

3.2. Approach to the study of temperament in the Perm psycho-physiological school of V. S. Merlin..........57

3.3. A look at the problem of temperament in the psychophysiological school of B. M. Teplov..................................59

3.4. The Regulatory Theory of Temperament by J. Strelyau......................63

3.5. Approaches of Western psychologists to the study of types of temperament ........ 64

3.6. Do temperamental features change with age? .............. 69

3.7. Correlation of temperament and character .............................. 70

3.8. Tina personality .............................................................. 75

Part two. Properties of the nervous system as a natural basis for individual differences

Chapter 4. General ideas about the properties of the nervous system and the typological features of their manifestation ...................89

4.1. Correlation of the concepts "property of the nervous system" and "typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system" .................................................. 89

4.2. Characteristics of the typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system .............................. 92

4.3. Structure and classification of the properties of the nervous system .......... 95

4.4. Partial and General Properties of the Nervous System...............................99

Chapter 17 Leadership and Communication Styles..........................325

17.1. The concept of leadership style .............................................. 325

17.2. Classifications of Leadership Styles...............................326

17.3. Leadership style and personality traits .............................333

17.4. The Effectiveness of Different Leadership Styles...................................336

17.5. The attitude of subordinates to different leadership styles .......... 339

17.6. Communication Styles as a Reflection of Leadership Style .................................340

17.7. Styles of self-presentation...................................344

17.8. Parenting Styles...............................................346

17.9. Styles of attachment of children to mother .............................. 349

Section three. The success of professional activity and the properties of the nervous system and temperament

Chapter 18...........352

18.1. Efficiency of monotonous activity in connection with typological features ..........352

18.2. Efficiency of activity in extreme situations and typological features ....................... 357

18.3. Operational tension and typological features.....361

18.4. The effectiveness of activities that require concentration and stability of attention, in connection with typological features ... 362

18.5. The success of the activities of managers and typological and personal characteristics .......... 363

18.6. Artistic activity and typological features ..........364

18.7. Efficiency of intellectual professional activity and typological features ...................... 365

18.8. Efficiency of group activity and typological features ..............................368

18.9. Stimulation of the activities of persons with different typological characteristics .............................. 369

Chapter 19...............370

19.1. The role of typological features in the development of a professional .... 370

19.2. Differential-psycho-physiological aspects of vocational guidance and selection ...................... 371

19.3. Individual characteristics and job satisfaction..........376

19.4. Differential-psychophysiological aspects of vocational education and training..........376

19.5. Professional adaptation of persons with different typological features .............................. 379

Chapter 20 ..........382

20.1. Typological features and academic performance ............................... 382

20.2. Typological features and success in performing various mental actions .......... 387

20.3. Techniques and methods of training and education and typological features .......... 390

Chapter 21

21.1. Refusal to divide the typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system into "good" and "bad"............................................................394

21.2.1 The need to identify typological complexes .......................397

21.3. Adequacy of understanding of the connections of the properties of the nervous system with the efficiency of activity and behavior .............................................. 399

21.4. Accounting for the types of statistical relationships between the properties of the nervous system and the efficiency of activity and behavior .............................................. 401

21.5. Accounting for the stage of mastering professional skills ............... 404

21.6. Using a systematic approach in studying the relationship of typological features with the effectiveness of activities .......... 405

21.7. Principles for predicting the effectiveness of activities by typological features .............................................................407

Part five. Health and individual characteristics

Chapter 22.......................412

22.1. Coying Strategies...............................................412

22.2. Types of psychological defense mechanisms and individual characteristics of their use .......... 416

22.3. Typology of Personalities according to Kellerman-Plutchik According to the Use of the Defense Mechanism.................................................................425

22.4. Types of reaction to frustration....................................428

Chapter 23.................432

23.1. Personality types predisposed to certain diseases ...... 433

23.2. Personal characteristics and health .............................. 438

23.3. Types of people's attitudes towards their illness .............................. 439

Appendix I. Glossary of Basic Psychological and Physiological Concepts...................... 442

Annex II. Methods for studying individual characteristics ..... 449

1. Techniques for identifying the types and properties of temperament ..................449

Questionnaire of formal-dynamic properties of individuality (OFDSI) (V. M. Rusalov) .......... 449

Methodology "Determination of the predominant type of temperament" ...........

461 Methodology "Rating scale for measuring student reactivity" (J. Strelyau)...............463

Questionnaire "Study of the psychological structure of temperament" (B. N. Smirnov) ............... 464

Technique "Properties and formula of temperament" .............................. 466

Gex's questionnaire for determining the characterological characteristics of a person .............................. 470

Test "Temperament and Sociotypes" (Heymans) .............................. 471

D. Keirsey's technique ............................................... 475

Response form to the D. Keirsey questionnaire .............................. 481

Test questionnaire for diagnosing the properties and type of temperament (EPQ. form A) (G. Eysenck) .................. 482

Questionnaire G. Eysenck (adolescent) .................................. 484

Methodology for determining the level of personal anxiety (C. Siilberger). .

Technique "Diagnosis of rigidity" (G. Eysenck)..................................487

Questionnaire to identify the severity of Machiavellianism .................. 488

Questionnaire for assessing the level of infantilism (psychopathy) of the individual .... 489

Questionnaire of V. Gorbachevsky to identify the level of claims ........... 489

2. Methods for studying the individual characteristics of the emotional sphere 492

Four-modality emotional questionnaire (L. A. Rabinovich) ..... 492

Methodology "Determination of emotional excitability" (P. V. Simonov). . 495

Methodology "Emotional excitability - balance" (B. N. Smirnov).................................................... ...........495

Methodology "Determination of emotionality" (V. V. Suvorova)............496

Self-assessment test "Characteristics of emotionality" (E. II. Ilyin). . 497

Methodology "Diagnosis of the level of empathy" (I. M. Yusupov) ............... 498

Methodology "Diagnostics of the level of empathy" (V.V. Boyko).................................499

Experimental method for studying emnatia...............................501

Methodology "Optimist - pessimist"..................................................502

Test "Pessimist or optimist" .................................... 504

Scale of optimism-activity .........................................506

3. Methods for studying the individual characteristics of the motivational sphere 509

Methodology "Cognitive orientation (locus of control)" (J. Rotter) ..... 509

Technique "Impulsivity" .............................................511

Methodology "Motivation for success" (T. Elsrs) .............................................512

Methodology "Motivation to avoid failures" (T. Ehlers).................................513

Methodology "Motivation for success and fear of failure" (A. A. Rean)............515

Technique "Measuring Rationality" .............................................516

Methodology "Value Orientations" (M. Rokeach).................................518

Questionnaire for diagnosing gaming addiction (gambling) ............... 519

4. Methods for studying individual characteristics of behavior .......... 522

Interpersonal Diagnosis Questionnaire (T, Leary, R. L. Laforge, R. F. Suchek) ............................................... ....................522

Method for measuring shyness....................................................526

Methodology "Tendency to exaltation" (V. V. Boyko)............530

Sensation SecKing Scale by M. Zuckerman (1978). . . 530

Questionnaire X. Smishek "Diagnostics of types of accentuation of character traits and temperament according to K. Leonhard"......... 532

Test "Egocentric Associations" ..................................536

Technique "III kalasovestliboctii" .................................. 538

Questionnaire "Auto- and hetero-aggression" (V. G1. Ilyin) .............................. 538

Methodology "Diagnostics of propensity to aggressive behavior" (A. Assinger).................................539

Methodology "Conflict Personality"..................................................541

Methodology "Personal aggressiveness and conflict" (E. P. Ilyin, P. A. Kovalev) ............... 543

Methodology "Aggressive behavior" (E. P. Ilyin, P. A. Kovalev) .......... 546

Experimental-psychological method of studying the type of frustration reactions............548

Methodology "Shyness-Shyness Scale" .........................................553

Methodology "Indicator of Coping Strategies" (D. Amirkhan).................554

5. Techniques for identifying links between individual characteristics and diseases .................................556

Diagnosis of types of attitude towards the disease (TOBOL).................................556

Questionnaire for identifying people of type A...............................................572

6. Methods for studying the individual characteristics of the volitional sphere ..... 574

Questionnaire for self-assessment of patience (P. P. Ilyin, E. K. Feshchenko) .... 574

Techniques for the experimental study of perseverance .................................574

Technique "Unsolvable problem" .............................................575

Methodology N. V. Vntt .............................. ..575

Questionnaire for self-assessment of perseverance (E. P. Ilyin, E. K. Feshchenko) ............... 576

Questionnaire for self-assessment of persistence (E. 11. Ilyin, E. K. Feshchenko). . . 577

Methods of studying patience during breath holding (M. I. Ilyina, A. I. Vysotsky).................................578

Dynamometric method for studying patience (M. N. Ilyina) ....... 579

Methodology for identifying the level of courage (G. A. Kalashnikova) .................................... 580

Experimental methods for studying decisiveness (I. P. Petyaikin) 581

Schubert's Risk Willingness (RSK) Technique .............................581

Scale "Social Courage" .............................................. 582

7. Methods for studying the typological features of the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system ...... 584

Techniques for studying the strength of the nervous system .................................... 584

Techniques for studying the mobility of nervous processes .............................595

Techniques that determine functional mobility through lability .............................. 602

Techniques for studying the balance of nervous processes .............................. 603

8. Methods for identifying styles of perceptual-intellectual activity 613

Methodology "Teacher's analysis of the style of his pedagogical activity" ... 613

Techniques for identifying cognitive styles.................................................617

Questionnaire B. Kadyrov to identify the relationship of the two signal systems....................... 620

E. A. Klimov’s technique for identifying the correlation of signal systems 627

Technique of V. B. Kossov for the diagnosis of specially human types of higher nervous activity...................................................................627

9. Techniques for studying leadership styles ..........................................628

Methodology "Self-assessment of management style" .............................. 628

Methodology "Leadership Style" (A. L. Zhuravlev) .............................. 629

Methodology "Tendency to a certain style of leadership" (E.P. Ilyin) ............... 635

Methodology for assessing the level of democratization of management in terms of stylistic characteristics ..............................638

Technique "Management Style"..................................................641

Literature............................................646

The textbook is addressed primarily to teachers: teachers, educators of preschool institutions, teachers of colleges and universities. Particular attention is paid to psychological information. relevant for practical pedagogy and missing in most textbooks on educational psychology.

The manual includes five sections: "Psychology of the teacher's activity." "Psychology of learning", "Psychology of education". "Psychological characteristics of teachers", "Preschoolers and students as subjects of play and learning activities and as objects of the teacher's activity." At the end of the book, an appendix is ​​given in which there are two sections of the methodology for studying the characteristics of the activities and personality of teachers and the methodology for studying the psychological characteristics of pupils and students. The publication contains an extensive list of literature related to this issue.

This textbook provides a systematic presentation of the methodological foundations of differential human psychology. The results of numerous empirical studies carried out by means of this section of psychology are presented. The possibilities of correct practical application of differential psychological knowledge with the help of the proposed methods are considered.

The publication is intended for students of psychological and pedagogical profiles, as well as for university professors and practical psychologists.