Confessional and dogmatic features of Catholicism. Chapter III

Luther's speeches, as is known, began with a protest against the sale of indulgences. Roman Catholic practice in this area was based on the doctrine of satisfaction to God for sins, according to which the sacrifice of Christ, no matter how great it is in its significance, does not free the penitent from the need to give God additional satisfaction for sins. According to Roman Catholic teaching, a person brings this satisfaction to Divine justice through his suffering, both through deeds of piety in earthly life and through torment in purgatory. “The meaning of papal indulgences is to free a person from this need to bring additional satisfaction to God. The money that a Roman Catholic paid for an indulgence ultimately played the role of an equivalent measure of such satisfaction. The matter changed little because money itself was not considered a means of satisfying God, but was only a means of acquiring guarantees for appropriate satisfaction from the treasury of merit.

By opposing the sale of indulgences, Luther had to reject their doctrinal basis - the Catholic teaching about additional satisfaction required from the penitent. He declared with all decisiveness that Christ had already paid the entire debt for the human race and that no more satisfaction was required. The Apology of the Augsburg Confession directly states: “The doctrine of human satisfaction is diabolical.”

Having rejected the doctrine of additional satisfaction, Luther naturally rejected everything that Roman Catholics consider to be the means of bringing such satisfaction, including the necessity for the justification of good works, and proclaimed his doctrine of justification (or salvation) by faith alone as the basis of Protestant soteriology (sola fide).

131. Thus, Luther, like the Catholics, sees the main way to save sinners from punishment not in the pursuit of moral purification and holiness, but only in evading punishment. What distinguishes his teaching from the Roman Catholic one is only the assertion that since Christ had already paid in full for human sins, he thereby freed those who remained in the faith from any need to atone for them through pious deeds.

Here it is necessary to dwell in detail on Luther’s reasoning, with which he refutes the teaching of Catholicism about satisfying God for sins and the need to perform good deeds for this.

In the “Members of Schmalkalden” there is such a reasoning on this issue, which, by the way, is very typical for people brought up on Roman Catholicism: “Satisfaction for sins is impossible, because no one knows how much good he would have to do for sin alone, not to mention everyone." In other words, a person who does not know the norm required of him can do more good than is necessary to satisfy, and still remain unsure of his salvation. According to Luther’s teaching, there should be no such uncertainty in the system of relationships between man and God: provided certain conditions are met, a Christian should be completely confident about his salvation. It is not difficult to see that both Luther and the Roman Catholic theologians proceed from the same premises, which are purely legal in nature.

What Luther is outraged by in Roman Catholic soteriology is not jurisprudence, not the very idea of ​​payment for sins, but, firstly, the inconsistency of the teaching (satisfaction from two sources - brought by Christ and brought by man) and, secondly, the fact that the Roman Catholic the system forces a person to constantly worry about repentance and satisfaction.

In the Formula of Concord, Lutherans say this: “We must reject the idea that good works are necessary for salvation.”

Luther himself, during the monastic period of his life, had to suffer a lot from constant uncertainty as to whether his exploits were sufficient to satisfy God (Luther, apparently, did not pin his hopes on indulgences even then). Having embarked on the path of the Reformation, Luther tried to bring complete certainty to this issue: Christ paid everything and nothing is required of man - this is the main position of Lutheran soteriology. In support, texts from the Holy Scriptures were cited, which speak of salvation as a gift of God’s mercy.

132. Thus arose the Lutheran doctrine of justification by faith alone, which is the cornerstone of Lutheranism. “We are justified not through any of our own merits, but through faith in Christ” (“Augsburg Confession”). “Through faith in Him, and not through our merits, not through our repentance, not through our love” (“Apology”). “We acquire Christ’s merit not by works or money, but through faith by grace” (“Members of Schmalkalden”).

“This opinion of Luther comes from his understanding of faith as the Christian’s confidence in his personal salvation. To be saved, one must not just believe in Christ and in the work he accomplished, but in the fact that “to me... forgiveness of sins is given without my merit” ( “Apology”). Faith is “not the knowledge that God exists, that there is hell, etc., but the confidence that my sins are forgiven for the sake of Christ” (ibid.).

However, this faith is also not the merit of man. She is "a gift from God." “Faith is not a human thought that I myself could produce, but a Divine power in the heart.” Thus, faith is conceived by Lutherans as something passively acquired by man.

In Luther one can find comparisons of a person with a “pillar of salt” and a “block.” The man is even worse than a blockhead, because he is stubborn and hostile. His advantage, however, is that he retained the ability to believe. The “Formula of Concord” states that after the Fall “not even a spark of Divine powers remained in man.”

However, Lutherans are unable to consistently and completely carry out the idea of ​​man’s complete passivity in the matter of his salvation. This idea does not fit in any way with the Gospel teaching, which is very far from portraying a person as a “pillar of salt.” Lutherans do not deny the Holy Scriptures of the New Testament, and therefore still cannot completely reject the meaning of good works. The Augsburg Confession says that “good deeds must be done,” that “the law must be fulfilled.”

So, good deeds are completely unnecessary for salvation, but they still must be done, since without them there is no real faith, and therefore there is no salvation. It cannot be said that there was a clear consistency of judgment among Lutherans in their treatment of this issue. What is clear here is that Luther’s teaching is not so easy to reconcile with the Gospel.

Important provisions of Lutheran soteriology are the process of a person’s conversion to Christ and the moral consequences for him of the essence of justification itself, accepted by Lutheranism, expressed in the doctrine of pronunciation.

133. The essence of justification itself in Lutheran doctrine consists in the “declaration” of the sinner as righteous (“imputation” and “pronunciation”), after which the sinner becomes righteous due to the satisfaction that Christ brought. The dirty one is declared clean. God ceases to be angry with the sinner because He received complete satisfaction for his sins. The change, therefore, occurs not in man, but in God’s attitude towards him. The only change in man is that before he was subject to punishment and was in fear, but after pronunciation he is a “joyful, jubilant child of God.”

But is a person restored in this way to his moral dignity after turning to Christ?

The most detailed process of turning a sinner to God in the light of the Lutheran doctrine of justification is set out in the “Formula of Concord.”

“Conversion,” says the “Formula of Concord,” “neither completely, nor half, nor to any smallest or insignificant part belongs to the person himself, but is completely and completely produced by the Divine action.” A person only submits to this action, but does not participate in the work of his salvation. “We condemn,” it says there, “the teaching of the synergists, that man... is only... half-dead... that free will... can... on our own to accept God and to some, albeit weak and insignificant, degree to act with Him, to promote and help his influence."

How can this position of Lutheranism be reconciled with the preaching of the Gospel, which calls a person to activity, to the fight against sin, to repentance? The “Formula of Concord” considers calls to repentance not evangelical in the true sense of the word, but Old Testament, since the Gospel teaches that the Son of God “paid for all our sins.” “It is therefore impossible to derive the preaching of repentance from the Gospel in the proper sense.” The “Formula of Concord”, in fact, corrects the Gospel when it states:

“In this sense, all calls to repentance are removed from the Gospel and transferred to the realm of the Law.” They (these evangelical calls) “are not evangelical in the proper sense.”

134. Thus, the main point in the process of conversion is not repentance, but faith in the understanding in which it is given in the teaching of Luther. “It was through faith in the Gospel, or the promise of Christ, that all the patriarchs and all the saints from the beginning of the world were justified, and not because of their repentance or contrition or works (Apology).

The essence of the Lutheran doctrine of justification and pronunciation is stated in the “Schmalkaldic Members” as follows: “For the sake of our Intercessor Christ, God has deigned to consider us completely righteous and holy. Although the sin in our flesh has not yet been removed and put to death, He does not want to know it and does not punish him for it." “Thanks to faith in Christ, everything that is sinful and unclean in our deeds is not considered sin and deficiency.” “A man, completely by his personality and by his deeds, is declared and considered justified and holy.”

But is it worthy of God to declare evil good, to accept sinful things as holy? Did the apostles teach about such “justification”? Lutherans are again faced with the need to reconcile their doctrine of pronunciation with New Testament teaching. The New Testament scriptures speak of newness of life, of putting off the old man. Lutherans cannot completely reject the moral teaching of the Gospel. The Apology repeats this teaching when it says that faith “renews the heart, the mind, and the will, and makes of us a different people and a new creature.” But then, “why is the doctrine of pronunciation necessary? There is the same inconsistency here: on the one hand, the tendency to present the work of man’s salvation as taking place outside of man and apart from him, on the other, the impossibility of carrying out this point of view to the end without falling into a sharp contradiction with the Holy Scriptures. As a result, Lutherans do not completely reject the moral side of justification, but only relegate it to the background, based on the fact that complete moral renewal is unattainable in this life, and contrast it with the complete justification of a person as something achieved in earthly life without much difficulty. depicts this justification as a legal act, occurring in God, and not in man. “In justification, the righteousness of Christ is assimilated to us, without the fact that we ourselves have become righteous in our moral nature.” The last words show that this is not about the actual assimilation by man. the righteousness of Christ, but only about the legal imputation of it to man.

135. A person who believes in his salvation ceases to worry about his final fate and becomes a “joyful, rejoicing child of God.” From all of the above it follows that this joy and jubilation is caused in him by a feeling of impunity; he is confident that God will not consider as sin and lack everything that is sinful and unclean in his affairs.

Luther's teaching on pronunciation and the very formulation of the question of the need for good deeds reveal a different religious psychology, a different gradation of values, a different understanding of the main goal. Consistently developing Luther's individual thoughts on justification, one could come to the strangest conclusions. But, it must be said, Luther himself tried, as far as possible, to avoid conclusions that would be in too obvious contradiction with Holy Scripture. In general, about Protestants, about their practical attitude to issues of justification, the same can be said that has already been said about Roman Catholics: in soul and heart they are often closer to Orthodoxy than their official teaching.

The fundamental difference between Luther's teaching on justification by faith alone and Orthodoxy lies in the different interpretation of the Gospel teaching.

Luther proceeds in his teaching mainly from those passages in the letters of the Apostle Paul where it is said that a person is justified by faith apart from the works of the law(Rom. 3:28), and by the works of the law is no flesh justified(Gal. 2:16). In other words, faith is contrasted here with the works of the law.

136. The Apostle Paul says this against those who thought that a person could be saved without Christ, by their own efforts. The Apostle Paul wants to say that salvation is accomplished by Christ and that a person’s works in themselves do not save. (If a person could accomplish his own salvation, there would be no need for Christ to come to earth). And when the “Formula of Concord” says that “the honor of justification belongs not to our miserable works, but to Christ,” the Orthodox recognize the correctness of this thought. Works are not a person’s “merit” before God; he does not acquire the right to salvation through his works. In this sense, works are not the legal basis of salvation. Salvation is not a price for deeds, it is a gift from God. But not everyone uses this gift. When the Apostle Paul speaks about those who were justified by faith, he cites the example of the Old Testament righteous, according to what was said: “the righteous shall live by faith.” This righteousness was imperfect and in itself insufficient for salvation, but it constitutes a moral condition for salvation and this explains why not everyone receives the gift of salvation . When going to God, a person is not passive, he participates with his whole being in the Cross of Christ in order to be resurrected with Christ. This apostolic teaching should not be forgotten.

Man draws strength from Christ for his renewal. By mystically uniting with Christ in the church body, a person becomes a participant in a new life. He is not only “declared” to be righteous, but becomes an actual participant in the righteousness of Christ, this New Adam, the renewer of human nature. The Church and the Apostle Paul are far from belittling a person, presenting him as filled with slavish joy that his sins are no longer punished. Christ exalted man and seated him in His person at the right hand of the majesty of God. God became man in order to raise man to deification. This is church teaching. Lutheran one-sided emphasis that salvation is a gift, and the simultaneous denial of human activity can lead to fatalism.

Archbishop Sergius of Finland (1867-1943), later Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, gave a profound analysis of the Protestant teaching on salvation in his classic work “Orthodox Teaching on Salvation” (29).

As a result of a careful study of the writings of the holy fathers and a comparison of the patristic teachings on salvation with heterodox teachings (Roman Catholic and Protestant), Archbishop Sergius came to the conclusion that it is in the understanding of salvation that the basis of religious differences lies and that in this matter “the difference between Orthodoxy and heterodoxy lies not in some particular omissions and inaccuracies, but right at the very root, in principle.” And further: “Orthodoxy and heterodoxy are opposite to each other, just like... self-love... and life according to Christ.” Before me, says the eminent author about the results of his research, two completely different worldviews, not reducible to one another, arose : legal and moral, Christian." In the legal worldview, the relationship between God and man is "similar to the relationship of a king to a subordinate and is not at all like a moral union"; God for man appears to be "only a means to achieving well-being." The moral worldview posits the highest good of man in holiness and the source of this holiness is seen in God. Salvation, in conventional language, is the deliverance of a person from sin, curse and death. This definition can be equally accepted by both the Orthodox and the follower of the legal worldview. But the whole question is what each of them believes. salvation 137 the most important and essential. The self-lover will, of course, put in the first place the consequences of sin for the well-being of a person... He will explain salvation to himself as deliverance from the suffering caused by sin.” He will explain the very consequences of sin to himself by saying that God is angry and therefore punishes. Therefore, he understands salvation only as a change from God’s wrath to mercy, and imagines it in the form of an action that takes place only in the Divine consciousness and does not touch the human soul... Since all the attention of a sinful person is directed towards not suffering, in order to get a comfortable life in self-pleasure, then he does not think much about how this opportunity is achieved... He does not love goodness, does not understand working on himself for the sake of holiness and is afraid to sacrifice kind sin - it is difficult and unpleasant for him... Meanwhile, for the Orthodox consciousness, sin itself, in addition to all its disastrous consequences, constitutes the greatest evil... From here it is obvious that in the concept of salvation, the Orthodox will put liberation from sin in first place... Sin is evil; people wanted to get rid of him Old Testament; freedom from it was preached by Christ with His apostles in the New." The work of Archbishop Sergius cites a number of texts from the patristic writings, testifying to the fact that the Church Fathers could not "understand salvation otherwise than salvation primarily from sins.

138. “If this is the essence of salvation, then the very method of it becomes definite for us. If we think only about saving a person from suffering, then it is completely indifferent whether this deliverance is free or not free on the part of a person: it’s all a matter of complacency But if a person needs to be made righteous, it is necessary to free him from sin, then it is not at all indifferent whether the person is only passive (passive - D.O.) a subject for the action of supernatural power, or he himself will participate in his own deliverance. That is why in the Holy Scriptures and in the works of the Fathers of the Church there is a constant desire to convince a person to work out his own salvation, because without his own efforts no one can be saved. It is certain that “man is nothing without God” (Tikhon of Zadonsk)... And that, therefore, salvation can only be attributed to the grace of God. However, “God has adorned man with the gift of freedom” (Gregory of Nyssa)... And that, therefore, salvation can only be attributed to the grace of God. However, “God has adorned man with the gift of freedom” (Gregory of Nyssa)... Involuntary holiness cannot be holiness... Salvation cannot be some externally judicial or physical event, but must necessarily be a moral action... Although grace acts, although he does everything, he certainly does it within freedom and consciousness..."

The above arguments exclude the Lutheran teaching about the complete passivity of man in the matter of salvation, as well as the Lutheran interpretation of the conditions of justification and its essence.

According to Protestant teaching, it turns out that God was angry with man all the time, all the time he could not forgive him for the insult that man inflicted on Him through sin. Then, suddenly, seeing a person’s faith in Jesus Christ, God is reconciled with the person and no longer considers him His enemy; although a person can still sin after this, but with impunity." Orthodox teaching understands God's attitude towards man differently. "The main thing in justification," says Archbishop Sergius, "is not the pronunciation of Protestants, but the conversion of a person from sin to life according to God, a moral revolution ..." "We were buried with Him through baptism into death, so that just as Christ was raised from the dead by the glory of the Father, so we too might walk in newness of life" (Rom. 6:4).

“By being freed from sins in Baptism, a person becomes a participant in the righteousness of Christ. Protestants turned this into a completely external judicial incident. According to them, God, not finding anything in a person for which he should be rewarded in eternal life, imputes to him the merit... which Jesus Christ accomplished. The basis for imputation is simply that God sees on the part of man a desire to appropriate this merit to himself (faith as a tool, instrumentum for assimilating Christ’s merit)..." Meanwhile, according to Orthodox teaching, “a person is saved not by the fact that he wants to appropriate for himself what Christ did, but by the fact that he is in the closest unity with Christ, like a branch with a vine... this unity, on the one hand, gives a person strength, strengthens his determination to observe the will of Christ, and on the other hand, requires diligence from him (otherwise there is nothing to strengthen if there is no determination)... The effectiveness of the sacrament depends on the degree of free participation of the person himself in it.”

These are the main thoughts of the work of Archbishop Sergius.

139. How could Luther, a man gifted with high aspirations, an irreconcilable fighter against the shortcomings of Roman Catholicism, be satisfied with such an imperfect theological interpretation of the work of Christ? The reason should be seen, firstly, in the fact that Luther, having lost faith in the Church, put personal considerations above church thought, and secondly, in the fact that the Roman Catholic Church, which raised Luther, did not itself preserve the heritage of apostolic ecclesiasticalism in all its purity.

Luther correctly noted the inconsistency of the Roman Catholic doctrine of justification: if the Blood of Christ is sufficient to satisfy the sins of the whole world, it is illogical to demand any additional satisfaction from people. But Luther did not notice the main drawback of this teaching, which is the too free use in soteriology of analogies with such human concepts as the anger of the offended, the need for satisfaction, etc. The justice of God is not at all the same as our human justice, which ensures human interests . It comes from other criteria - Moral. It is not the father who moves away from the prodigal son - it is the son who goes to a distant side. It is not God who is at enmity with the sinner - it is the sinner who is at enmity with God. As stated in the canon of Octoechos:

“You have loved me dearly as my enemy.” “Here I stand at the door and knock...” The person himself must open the door. The change must occur in the individual, not in the abstract realm of legal relationships. Christ came to us to unite with us. We are not aloof from His Cross, we are not passive observers of our salvation. The Cross of Christ enters the life of a Christian and with it the leaven of another life. This is a moral sphere. The dry bones of humanity are resurrected along with the One who trampled down death with death. In the “funeral songs” of Holy Saturday, the thoughts and feelings of the Church are turned to the birth of new life from the “two-branched” Grain, which was received by the bowels of the earth at the burial of the Savior. Those who are saved become participants in this life in Christ. In this life, according to the Church, salvation consists; there can be no salvation without deliverance from dead works.

Of course, there is no immorality in the Lutheran environment; on the contrary, we can talk about a kind of piety, quite strict Lutheran piety. However, what was destroyed from the very beginning and what Lutherans do not have to this day is the concept of an internal struggle against sin, asceticism, for if a person is saved, the internal struggle to overcome certain passions and vices, in fact, cannot find justification, she doesn't exist. Despite all the piety and puritanism of certain Protestant movements, asceticism as such is absent in Protestantism in all its directions.

140. And finally, concluding this section, we can once again turn to the authoritative dogmatic document - the “District Message of the Eastern Patriarchs” (1723). It expounds at length the church teaching about Western misconceptions that accumulated by the 17th-18th centuries. In particular, it says this about works and faith: “We believe that a person is justified not simply by faith alone, but by faith promoted by love, that is, through faith and works. It is not the ghost of faith alone, but the faith that is in us through works that justifies us in Christ." Neither the theoretical faith of Lutherans, nor its contemplative side, nor the very fact of confidence in one’s own salvation grants this salvation. It is given only by faith, which can be called living or, as it is called in the epistle, promoted by love, that is, that which is embodied in the real, striving for righteousness, life in Christ of a church person.

Causes of the Reformation. The language of the church - Latin - was incomprehensible to most believers; Many could not read the Bible; Peasants and townspeople were outraged by the church's exactions; Representatives of the bourgeoisie were irritated by the rich decoration of the church; Land-poor knights, feudal lords, looked with envy at the rich church lands; Kings and princes were irritated by the interference of the Pope in the affairs of the state.

On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther published his “95 Theses”, which boiled down to the following: - do not forgive sins without repentance (repentance), - forgiveness is given by God, and not for money, - it is better to do a good deed than to pay off, - the main wealth of the church - Holy Scripture. Martin Luther

John Calvin. Engraving 17th century. In the 40s XV century The second stage of the Reformation began. It was led by John Calvin, who put forward the idea of ​​“divine predestination.” People are initially divided into those who will be saved and those who will not perish. But this is unknown in advance. Therefore, you need to behave as befits the divine chosen ones.

Features of the Church Catholic LutheranCalvinist Anglican What are the distinctive features of the doctrine of the salvation of the soul? What is the role of the church and priests? Which power is more important: spiritual or secular? The language in which worship is conducted. Attitude to the wealth of the church.

Features of the Church Catholic LutheranCalvinist Anglican What are the distinctive features of the doctrine of the salvation of the soul? Salvation of the soul only through the church, following its commandments Salvation by faith, there are no intermediaries between man and God “Divine predestination” in who will be saved The foundations of the Catholic faith are preserved What is the role of the church and priests? Which power is more important: spiritual or secular? The language in which worship is conducted. Attitude to the wealth of the church.

Features of the Church Catholic LutheranCalvinist Anglican What is the role of the church and priests? Only priests can interpret the Bible and forgive sins. Priests only explain the Bible. They are elected by the community of believers. Selected preachers oversee morality The role of priests is preserved Which authority is more important: spiritual or secular? The language in which worship is conducted. Attitude to the wealth of the church.

Features of the Church Catholic LutheranCalvinist Anglican Which power is more important: spiritual or secular? Secular rulers are subordinate to the Pope. The head of the church is the King. There is a community of believers. The head of the church is the King. The language in which worship is conducted. Attitude to the wealth of the church.

Catholicism is the largest denomination in Christianity (from 580 to 800 million adherents). There are especially many Catholics in Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Austria, Poland, Hungary, Latin American countries, and the USA.

In a small Roman Christian community, the first bishop of which, according to legend, was the Apostle Peter.

The process of separation began in the 3rd-5th centuries, when economic, political, and cultural differences between the western and eastern parts of the Roman Empire deepened. The division began with the rivalry between the popes and the patriarchs of Constantinople for supremacy in the Christian world. Around 867 there was a break between Pope Nicholas 1 and Patriarch Photius of Constantinople. At the 8th Ecumenical Council, the schism became irreversible after the controversy between Pope Leo 4 and the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Celuarius (1054) and was completed when the crusaders captured Constantinople.

basis Catholic dogma Like Christianity as a whole, the Holy Scriptures and Holy Tradition are accepted, but the Catholic Church considers the Holy Tradition to be the decrees of not only the first seven Ecumenical Councils, but also all subsequent councils, and in addition the papal epistles and decrees.

Organization catholic church characterized by strict centralization. The Pope is the head. Elected for life by the conclave of cardinals. It defines doctrines on matters of faith and morals. His power is higher than the power of the Ecumenical Councils. Catholicism maintains that the Holy Spirit comes from both God the Father and God the Son. The basis of salvation is faith and good works. The Church possesses a treasury of “super-duty” deeds - a “reserve” of good deeds created by Jesus Christ, the Mother of God, saints, pious Christians. The Church has the right to dispose of this treasury, to give part of it to those who need it. That is, to forgive sins, to grant forgiveness to those who repent (hence the doctrine of indulgences - the remission of sins for money or other services to the church). The Pope has the right to shorten the period of stay of the soul in purgatory.

The dogma of purgatory (a place between heaven and hell) is found only in Catholicism. The souls of sinners burn there in a cleansing fire, and then gain access to heaven. The dogma of papal infallibility (adopted at the first Vatican Council in 1870) (that is, God himself speaks through the pope), of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary (1854)

Cult part of Catholicism is also expressed in the presence of a ritual part.

Catholicism also recognizes seven sacraments, but the understanding of these sacraments is somewhat different: communion is made with unleavened bread (among the Orthodox - leavened bread); during baptism, they are sprinkled with water, and not immersed in a font; anointing (confirmation) is performed at the age of 7-8 years, and not in infancy (in this case, the teenager receives another name and image of a saint, whose actions he intends to follow); In Orthodoxy, only the black clergy (monasticism) takes the vow of celibacy, while among Catholics, celibacy (celibacy) is mandatory for all clergy.

Much attention is paid to the attire of the clergy (priest - black cassock, bishop - purple, cardinal - purple, pope - white cassock. The pope wears a miter and tiara as a sign of the highest earthly power, as well as a pallium - a ribbon with crosses sewn on it made of black cloth).

Important elements of the cult are Catholic holidays and fasts. Nativity Fast - Advent. Christmas is the most solemn holiday (three services: at midnight, at dawn and during the day, which symbolizes the birth of Christ in the womb of the father, in the womb of the Mother of God and in the soul of the believer). Epiphany - the feast of the three kings - commemorates the appearance of Jesus to the pagans and the worship of the three kings. The Feast of the Heart of Jesus - a symbol of hope for salvation. Feast of the Heart of Mary - a symbol of special love for Jesus and salvation, Feast of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary (December 8). One of the main holidays is the Ascension of Our Lady (August 15). Feast of Remembrance of the Dead (November 2).

Catholicism spread beyond Europe in the form of missions to non-Christians.

The residence of the Pope - the Vatican (area 44 hectares) has its own coat of arms, flag, anthem, guard, and maintains diplomatic relations with more than 100 countries of the world.

Orthodoxy.

Currently, there are 15 autocephalous, that is, independent churches in the world: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch (Syria, Lebanon), Jerusalem, Russian, Georgian, Serbian, Bulgarian, Cypriot, Hellenic (Greek), Albanian, Polish, Romanian, Czechoslovakian, American In addition, there are two autonomous Orthodox churches - Finnish (since 1957) and Japanese (since 1970)

All Orthodox churches have common doctrine and cult, while they retain canonical independence. The Patriarch of Constantinople, if considered “ecumenical,” is understood as “first among equals,” and he is not given the right to interfere in the activities of other Orthodox churches. The limits of independence of autonomous churches are determined by agreements with the autocephalous church that granted it autonomy. Administratively, autocephalous churches are divided into exarchates, dioceses, vicariates, deaneries, and parishes. Yes, Russian Orthodox Church has 4 exarchates, 76 dioceses, 11 vicariates. In addition, a number of autocephalous churches have missions, deaneries, and metochions under other Orthodox churches. System of organization and management of Orthodox churches.

Orthodoxy, like Protestantism, does not have a single control center like the Vatican. Autocephalous churches are headed by patriarchs (archbishops, metropolitans), elected by local councils for life. There are synods under the patriarchs. Exarchates are governed by exarchs, and dioceses are governed by diocesan bishops, under whom, in some cases, diocesan councils are created. Dioceses consist of districts and parishes. The Orthodox Churches have not held ecumenical councils since the 8th century (the last council in which the Orthodox churches participated was the Second Council of Nicaea in 783-787). Each of them, at local councils, approves canonical rules, revises or supplements the lists of saints, and determines the forms of attitude towards heresies and schisms. For example, at a local council of the Russian Orthodox Church in 1971, the anathema towards the Old Believers was lifted. All Orthodox churches are characterized by a hierarchical principle of governance. All clergy are divided into higher, middle and lower. In addition, the clergy is divided into black (monastic) and white (married).

Peculiarities Orthodox doctrine.

The basis of Orthodox dogma is the Niceno-Tsargrad Creed, approved at the first two Ecumenical Councils of 325 and 381. The 12 members (paragraphs) of which formulate ideas about God as a creator, about his relationship to the world and man. This includes ideas about the trinity of God, the Incarnation, atonement, resurrection from the dead, baptism, the afterlife, etc.

The Orthodox Church declares the basic principles of faith (dogmas) to be absolutely true, indisputable, eternal, communicated to man by God and incomprehensible by reason. Only those provisions of the doctrine that were approved by the first seven ecumenical councils are considered true. The rest, adopted later, are declared erroneous, contradicting “holy scripture.” The refusal of Protestant churches to reject most sacraments and to divide believers into laity and clergy is also considered an error.

Modern Orthodoxy.

The modernization of religion is caused primarily by the changes that have occurred in the minds of the majority of believers, not only under the influence of scientific discoveries and new theories, but also the new socio-political conditions of their lives. And, being a reaction to a change in the consciousness of believers, religious modernism has a reverse impact on this consciousness, forming new system religious orientation.

A specific feature of the modern modernization of Orthodoxy is not only the revision of socio-political and socio-historical concepts, but also the fact that, without going beyond the boundaries of orthodox dogmatic principles, many clergy interpret them in a new way. More and more attention is being paid to the relationship between faith and knowledge, science and religion.

Catholicism.

Catholicism is the most widespread Christian denomination, with adherents in all areas of the globe. According to European press data, at the beginning of the 1980s the number of Catholics was about 800 million people - about 18% of the planet's population. The Catholic Church is strictly centralized, has a single head - the Pope, a single center - the Vatican, a city-state in the center of Rome with an area of ​​44 hectares, which has its own coat of arms, flag and other attributes of statehood, down to a small guard. The combination of secular and religious power - a rare case in the history of modern times. The temporal power of the pope in its present form was established by the Lateran Treaty of 1929 between the fascist government of Mussolini and Pope Pius XI, according to which the Vatican State was created, its international sovereignty was recognized, and the church received a number of privileges in the country.

The Pope, through the Roman Curia, which has a complex administrative structure, leads the entire church and its numerous organizations operating in the vast majority of countries in the world. The main Catholic hierarchs - cardinals and bishops - are appointed by the pope from among the clergy different countries. The College of Cardinals (conclave) elects from among itself a pope for life, who, according to Catholic doctrine, is “the vicar of Jesus Christ, the successor of St. Peter, the supreme head of universal church, Western Patriarch, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the Vatican City State,” crowns the multi-level hierarchy of the authoritarian-monarchical organization of Catholicism. As a sovereign state, the Vatican exchanges diplomatic representatives with other states, including Italy. The modern Catholic Church is a large religious and political organization that has a great influence not only on the worldview of its followers - believers, but also on the socio-philosophical and ethical theories that arise in society. Play an active role in the ideological and political life in modern states, Catholicism is helped by the peculiarities of its structure, historical traditions and experience, the presence of an extensive network of mass organizations - a huge church apparatus with numerous monastic orders (the largest of them: Jesuits - 27 thousand, Franciscans and Salesians - 20 thousand, Christian Brothers - 16 thousand, Capuchins - 12 thousand, Benedictines - 10 thousand, Dominicans - 8 thousand). In total, the Catholic Church has over 1.5 million monks and nuns, including about 400 thousand priests. The activities of the Catholic Church are also characterized by the involvement of not only the clergy, but also lay Catholics in carrying out tasks of a socio-political nature. Catholicism has large political parties, trade unions, youth and other organizations.

Features of the Catholic faith.

Compared to Orthodoxy, Catholicism has a number of features in its doctrine and cult. Sharing the general Christian dogma of the divine Trinity, faith in the truth of the Bible and the system of myths about the creation of the world and man set forth in it, Catholicism recognizes, for example, the “proceeding” of the holy spirit not only from God the Father, as the Orthodox Church believes, but also from God son. Catholics believe in the existence of purgatory (except for heaven and hell), and recognize the infallibility in matters of faith and morality of the Pope, who is “the vicar of Christ on Earth.” Catholics consider the source of their doctrine not only “sacred scripture,” that is, the Bible, but also “tradition,” church tradition, in which they, unlike Orthodox Christians, include not only the decisions of the first seven Ecumenical Councils, but also subsequent councils, as well as popes' judgments However, only the church has the right to interpret the Bible. The clergy in Catholicism is distinguished by its vow of celibacy and the so-called doctrine of the reserve of good works - divine grace, which is distributed by priests.

The sacraments and rituals common to Christianity are also celebrated in a unique way in Catholicism. For example, the sacrament of baptism is performed by pouring water or immersion in water, whereas in Orthodoxy it is performed only by immersion in water. The sacrament of anointing in Catholicism, called confirmation, is performed when the child turns seven or eight years old (in Orthodoxy - shortly after birth). The sacrament of the Eucharist is celebrated on unleavened bread (among the Orthodox - on leavened bread), while until recently only the clergy could partake of bread and wine, while the laity had to take communion only with bread.

Widespread, exalted veneration of the Mother of God and the doctrine of her bodily ascension, a magnificent theatrical cult using all types of art, extremely developed veneration of all kinds of relics, the cult of martyrs, saints and blessed, a strictly centralized hierarchical organization headed by the “infallible” Pope - these are characteristic features Catholic variety of the Christian religion.

Modernism in Catholicism.

Currently, the leadership of the Catholic Church has also been forced to take the path of modernizing its views. Thirty years ago, during a period of clear confrontation between the countries of the socialist and capitalist systems, when Orthodoxy for the most part was going through hard times due to the dominance of atheistic views imposed on the majority of the population, Catholicism, which actively supported the ideological struggle against communists and that is why it flourished in capitalist countries, was already forced to reconsider its positions. Then the main reasons were those social changes taking place in political system countries of the globe: expansion of the socialist camp, successes in the development of socialist countries; they influenced even such a traditionally conservative institution as the Catholic Church, not allowing it to associate itself with reactionary politics. For example, we can compare the actions of Pope Pius XII (during his pontificate 1939-1958) and those who followed him John XXIII (1958-1963), Paul VI (1963-1978) and John Paul II (1978-2005): if the first unconditionally supported the policy “ cold war”, then those who followed repeatedly spoke out in defense of peace, for the prohibition of nuclear weapons, and general disarmament.

In the intra-church, strictly religious area, the modernization of Catholicism is carried out in order to adapt religious doctrine and organization to the spirit of today, so that they do not contradict too much the secular mood and views modern man. Reform activities here are aimed at getting rid of archaisms and absurdities, making church canons and religious rituals more attractive to believers, etc. In particular, the constitution on liturgy adopted XXI Ecumenical Council, prescribes combining worship with local customs, especially in Asian and African countries; in some parts of the mass and in the performance of rites, use local spoken languages, simplify the Mass so that it is understandable to ordinary believers, pay more attention to sermons, the delivery of which on weekdays is strongly recommended, and on holidays is declared obligatory; allows all believers to partake of bread and wine.

Under the influence modern science Catholic leaders also advocate for a “modernized” interpretation of “sacred scripture” and call for abandoning the literal interpretation of the most controversial biblical ideas. Also, the modern Catholic Church is conducting a kind of campaign to achieve agreement with science, dissociating itself from historical facts that compromise it, such as the persecution of Galileo Galilei by the church, recognizing their fallacy.

Protestantism

Protestantism is one of the main directions of Christianity, along with Orthodoxy and Catholicism, covering many independent confessions and churches. The peculiarities of the ideology and organization of modern Protestantism are largely determined by the history of its emergence and development.

Protestantism arose in the 16th century, during the Reformation. It was no coincidence that the first act of the bourgeois revolution took place in the form of religious wars. The feelings and consciousness of the masses were completely dependent on the spiritual food offered by the church; therefore, the historical movement, the content of which was the transition from feudalism to capitalism, had to take on a religious coloring.

One of the first steps of the reformation movement in Germany was Martin Luther’s speech against indulgences; he believed that “God cannot and does not want to allow anyone to dominate the soul, except himself.” A person can save his soul only through faith, which is directly given by God, without the help of the church. This is Luther's doctrine of salvation or justification by faith in atoning sacrifice Christ, became one of the central tenets of Protestantism.

The Lutheran Reformation proclaimed the doctrine of the universal priesthood, the equality of all believers before God. Under the slogan of restoring the traditions of the early Christian church, a demand was put forward to abolish the separate class of priests, eliminate monks, prelates, the Roman Curia, that is, the entire expensive hierarchy. Together with the Catholic hierarchy, the authority of papal decrees and messages, decisions of councils was rejected; the only authority in matters of faith was recognized as “sacred scripture,” which every believer had the right to interpret according to his own understanding. Rejecting the church hierarchy and special sacred rites as a path to the salvation of the soul, this teaching considered man’s worldly activity as serving God, and it was in worldly life that man had to seek salvation; hence the condemnation of monasticism, celibacy of the clergy, etc. followed.

The document that expressed the essence of the reform that took place is the “Augsburg Confession,” which is a statement of the foundations of Lutheranism. In 1530 he was presented to Emperor Charles V, but was rejected by him, which led to a war between the emperor and the princes who accepted Luther's reformation, ending in 1555 with the Peace of Augburg. The princes were given the right to determine the religion of their subjects independently.

In the first half of the 16th century, the reform movement began to quickly spread beyond Germany; it established itself in Austria, the Scandinavian countries, the Baltic states, and separate communities appeared in Poland, Hungary, and France. At the same time, new varieties of the reform movement arose in Switzerland - Zwinglianism and Calvinism, more consistent in their bourgeois essence than Lutheranism. Zwinglianism more decisively broke with the ritual side of Catholicism, refusing to recognize a special magical power- grace behind the last two sacraments preserved by Lutheranism - baptism and communion: communion was considered as a simple rite performed in memory of the death of Jesus Christ, in which bread and wine became only symbols of his body and blood. The organization also consistently followed the republican principle: each community itself elected its own priest and was independent. Calvinism, theologically associated with one of the main principles of the Reformation - justification by faith, and not " good deeds" One of the main tenets of Calvinism is the doctrine of “absolute predestination”: even before the creation of the world, God supposedly predetermined the destinies of people, some were destined for heaven, others for hell, and no efforts of people, and no “good deeds” could change what was destined by the Almighty. From the very beginning, Calvinism was characterized by petty regulation of personal and public life believers in a spirit of sanctimonious decency and intolerance of any dissent. In accordance with its dogmatic basis, Calvinism discarded almost all the external attributes of the Catholic cult: icons, candles, vestments, etc. The main place in the service was taken by reading and commenting on the Bible, and the singing of psalms. The leading role in the communities was played by elders (elders) and preachers. Doctrinal issues were resolved by congregations - special meetings of preachers.

Unlike Germany and Switzerland, where the reformation began as popular movement, in England it was an initiative of the ruling elite. In 1534, the English parliament proclaimed the independence of the church from the pope and declared it head of King Henry VIII. All English monasteries were closed, their property was confiscated in favor of the royal treasury, while the preservation of Catholic dogmas and rituals was announced. Over time, the influence of Protestantism on the Anglican Church intensified; it accepted the dogmas of justification by faith and the Holy Scriptures as the only source of faith, and rejected the teachings of Catholicism about indulgences, the veneration of icons and relics. But at the same time, the Catholic dogma about the saving power of the church was recognized, although with some restrictions, the liturgy and some other rituals were preserved, and the episcopate remained inviolable.

In Scotland, the movement for church reform took place under the banner of Calvinism and was associated with the struggle against the Stuart dynasty, which ended in the late 60s with the execution of Mary Stuart. The Presbyterian Church, which grew out of Calvinism, proceeded from the recognition of the autocracy of Christ in the community of believers and the equality of its members; in connection with this, the bishopric was eliminated and only the presbytery was preserved.

With the aggravation of social contradictions in England at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries, a bourgeois opposition to the absolutist regime emerged, among which Calvinism, whose adherents are called Puritans, became widespread. The activation of democratic elements led to the emergence of various religious sects: Congregationalists, Baptists, Quakers, etc. In most cases, the formation of these sects in a religious form reflected the disappointment of the lower classes in the results of the bourgeois revolution.

Thus, during the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland and then during the bourgeois revolutions, primarily in England, the main currents that represent Protestantism at the present time were formed. The main varieties of reformed Christianity were and remain Lutheranism and Calvinism, which arose directly during the Reformation. All other Protestant formations vary the basic principles of these movements.

Catholicism is the largest denomination of Christianity. It is predominantly distributed in Western, Southwestern and Central Europe (Spain, France, Italy, Portugal, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary), in Latin America and the USA. Catholicism is practiced by part of the population of the Baltic states (in Lithuania, in the southeast of Latvia), as well as the western regions of Ukraine and Belarus.

The basis of the doctrine of Catholicism is recognized Scripture and Sacred Tradition. The Catholic Church considers all books included in the Latin translation of the Bible (Vulgate) to be canonical. Only the clergy is given the right to interpret the texts of the Bible.

Sacred tradition is formed by the decisions of the 21st council, as well as the judgments of the popes on church and worldly issues. Following the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed and other decisions of the first seven councils, the Catholic Church creates its own understanding of a number of dogmas. At the Council of Toledo in 589, an addition was made to the creed about the procession of the Holy Spirit not only from God the Father, but also from God the Son.

In the salvation of people burdened with original sin, Catholic doctrine assigns a special role to the church. It is designed to help a person compensate for the lost ability to achieve eternal salvation. This mission is carried out with the help of the treasury of supererogatory deeds, that is, the surplus of good deeds performed by Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and the saints. As Christ's vicar on earth, the pope manages this treasury of supererogatory affairs, distributing them among those who need them.

Catholicism recognizes seven sacraments: communion (Eucharist), baptism, penance, confirmation, unction, priesthood and marriage. The sacrament of baptism is carried out by pouring water, while in Orthodoxy only by immersion in water. The sacrament of anointing (confirmation) is performed upon reaching the age of seven or eight.

In addition to the recognition of the existence of heaven and hell, common to Christian movements, the Catholic Church formulated the doctrine of purgatory - an intermediate place where the souls of sinners are purified by going through severe trials. The dogma of purgatory was adopted by the Council of Florence in 1439 and confirmed in 1562 by the Council of Trent.

Catholicism is characterized by sublime veneration of the Mother of God - the Virgin Mary. In 18541 the dogma of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary was adopted, and in 1950 the dogma of the bodily ascension of the Mother of God was adopted, according to which Holy Mother of God The Ever-Virgin was taken to heaven “with soul and body for heavenly glory.” In 1954, a special holiday dedicated to the “Queen of Heaven” was established.

In Catholicism, the cult of angels, saints, icons, relics is preserved, canonization (canonization) and beatification (raise to the rank of blessed) are carried out. The center of religious and ritual rituals is the temple, decorated with paintings and sculptures on religious themes.

The head of the Catholic Church, the vicar of Jesus Christ, the supreme ruler of the Vatican State is the Pope. The special status of the popes is justified by their inheritance of power transferred by Jesus Christ to the Apostle Peter, who, according to church tradition, was the former first bishop of Rome. The pope is elected for life by a conclave of cardinals. According to the dogma of the Catholic Church, adopted by the Vatican Council in 1870, the pope is considered infallible in matters of faith and morals. In 1978, Polish Cardinal Karol Wojtyla was elected pope, taking the name John Paul II. International Center The Roman Catholic Church and the residence of the Pope is located in the Vatican. The Vatican State (area 44 hectares, about 1 thousand citizens) has its own coat of arms, flag, anthem, guard, and maintains diplomatic relations with more than 100 countries of the world.

Through the Roman Curia, the central administrative apparatus, the pope directs ecclesiastical and secular organizations operating in most countries of the world. According to the reform carried out in accordance with the apostolic constitution “The Good Shepherd” (1988), the Roman Curia includes a secretariat of state, 9 congregations (overseeing various areas of the church), 12 councils, 3 tribunals and 3 chancelleries. According to the decision of the Second Vatican Council, a church synod operates under the pope with an advisory voice, convening once every three years. Its members include patriarchs and metropolitans of the Eastern Catholic Churches, representatives of national episcopal conferences, monastic orders, and persons personally appointed by the pope.

There are over 400 thousand priests in the Catholic Church. The special duties of the Catholic clergy include celibacy.

An important position in the Catholic Church belongs to monasticism, organized in congregations and brotherhoods. There are currently about 140 religious orders, led by the Vatican's Congregation for Sanctified Life and Societies of Apostolic Life. Monastic associations specialize in missionary activities and charity. The most influential monastic orders are the Dominicans, Franciscans and especially the Jesuits. Special associations of priests and laity are also being created. The most numerous and powerful of them is God's Work, with 72 thousand members in 87 countries. His followers teach at 475 universities around the world and occupy key positions in government agencies and the media.

Attempts to actively adapt the doctrinal complex, cult, and church structures to the modern world found their expression in the renovation movement (agiornamento). These problems were discussed at the Second Vatican Council, whose sessions took place from 1962 to 1965. After long discussions, 16 documents on various theological and social issues were adopted. The conciliar constitution on liturgy includes many provisions aimed at simplifying rituals and worship and adapting them to specific conditions. A combination of Latin worship with local customs is allowed, especially in Asian and African countries. When performing rituals, local spoken languages ​​and national music are used. The need to combine sacred tradition and modern forms of culture, the use of choral singing, polyphonic music, and folk melodies is pointed out. John Paul II proclaimed strengthening the authority of Catholic doctrine and cult as one of the main tasks of his pontificate. A number of his encyclicals are devoted to actualization in modern world three hypostases of God. Thus, the image of God the Son is the main theme of the encyclical “Redeemer of Man.” In it, Jesus Christ is depicted as the center of the Cosmos and history, the standard of man. The encyclical “Rich in Mercy” is dedicated mainly to the first person of the Holy Trinity - God the Father, whose essence is revealed through mercy and salvation, through religious faith, bestowed on man. The third hypostasis—the Holy Spirit—is given a special role in the encyclical “Lord and Giver of Life.” It states that with all the achievements of human civilization and the development of science and technology, the world is on the brink of disaster. The Holy Spirit will help you escape from it; turning to it is interpreted as a search for higher spirituality.

The clergy, leaders of orders and secular Catholic organizations are looking for new forms of awakening interest in religion among all segments of the population, especially among young people. The network of spiritual centers is expanding, operating mainly under educational institutions, monasteries. Along with sermons and prayer services, such centers hold discussions on the problems of “fathers and sons” and sex, and church ensembles perform.

Methods of religious education are being developed that take into account age characteristics various youth groups. The church pins great hopes on updating catechisms - books containing (in the form of questions and answers) a statement of the main provisions of the Christian faith and morals. Authoritative teachers, psychologists, and linguists are involved in the compilation of catechisms. Currently, in various countries of the world, over 300 thousand people are engaged in teaching catechisms (catechesis). IN recent years Among catechists, the proportion of lay church activists, working in close contact with parish priests, increased.