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Spencer was a proponent of the concept. Herbert Spencer - English philosopher and sociologist: main ideas, quotes

Herbert Spencer (life - 1820-1903) - philosopher from England, the main representative of evolutionism, which became widespread in the 2nd half of the 19th century. He understood philosophy as a holistic, homogeneous knowledge based on specific sciences and achieving universal community in its development. That is, in his opinion, this is the highest level of knowledge, covering the entire world of law. According to Spencer, it lies in evolutionism, that is, development. The main works of this author: “Psychology” (1855), “System of Synthetic Philosophy” (1862-1896), “Social Statistics” (1848).

Spencer's early years

Herbert Spencer was born in 1820, April 27, in Derby. His uncle, father and grandfather were teachers. Herbert’s health was so poor that his parents even lost hope several times that the boy would survive. As a child, he did not show any phenomenal abilities; he learned to read only at the age of 8, however, books did not interest him much. Herbert Spencer was lazy and absent-minded at school, and also stubborn and disobedient. He was raised at home by his father, who wanted his son to acquire extraordinary and independent thinking. Herbert improved his health thanks to physical exercise.

Education of Herbert Spencer

He was sent at the age of 13, according to English custom, to be raised by his uncle. Thomas, Spencer's uncle, was a clergyman in Bath. He was a "university man." Herbert, at his insistence, continued his education at Cambridge University. However, after completing the three-year preparatory course, he went home. He decided to continue his studies on his own.

Herbert Spencer never regretted that he did not receive an academic education. He went through a good school of life, which subsequently helped him overcome many difficulties that arise when solving certain problems.

Spencer - engineer

Spencer's father wanted his son to become a teacher, that is, to follow in his footsteps. Having received a secondary education, he actually helped one teacher for several months at the school where he himself had once studied. Spencer showed a talent for teaching. But he was more interested in natural science and mathematics than in philology and history. Therefore, when the position of an engineer became vacant during the construction of the railway, Herbert Spencer accepted without hesitation. His biography at this time is marked by the fact that, while fulfilling his position, he sketched plans and drew maps. The thinker we are interested in even invented a special instrument (“velocimeter”) designed to measure the speed of trains.

Features of Spencer as a philosopher

Herbert Spencer, whose biography is described in this article, differs from most of his predecessor philosophers in a practical way. This brings him closer to Comte, the founder of positivism, as well as Renouvier, a neo-Kantian, who also did not complete the course at the university. This feature played an important role in the formation of the original Spencer. But this also had its drawbacks. For example, he, like Comte, did not know at all German language, therefore, I could not read the works of philosophers who wrote in it in the original. In addition, during the first half of the 19th century, German thinkers (Schelling, Fichte, Kant, etc.) remained unknown in England. Only from the late 1820s did the British begin to become acquainted with authors from Germany. The first translations were of very low quality.

Self-education, first philosophical works

In 1839, Spencer received Lyell's Principles of Geology. From this essay he becomes acquainted with the theory of the evolution of life. Spencer remains passionate about engineering projects, but it is now clear that this profession has a lasting financial situation does not guarantee him. Herbert returned home in 1841 and self-educated for two years. He became acquainted with the works of the classics of philosophy and at the same time published his first works - articles written for the Nonconformist, devoted to questions of the true boundaries of state activity.

Herbert again worked as an engineer in 1843-1846, heading the bureau. He is increasingly interested in political issues. He was greatly influenced in this area by his uncle Thomas, a priest who, unlike other members of the Spencer family, held conservative views, participated in the democratic Chartist movement, as well as in the agitation for the repeal of the Corn Laws.

"Social Statistics"

Spencer became assistant editor of The Economist (weekly) in 1846. He makes good money devoting his free time to his own work. Herbert writes "Social Statistics", in which he considered the development of life as gradually realizing a divine idea. He later found this concept too theological. However, already in this work Spencer applied to social life theory of evolution.

This work did not go unnoticed by specialists. Spencer makes acquaintances with Ellist, Lewis, and Huxley. It also brought him such admirers and friends as Hooker, Georg Grot, Stuart Mill. Only relations with Carlyle did not work out. Reasonable and cool-headed Spencer could not stand his bilious pessimism.

"Psychology"

The philosopher was inspired by the success of his first work. He published a number of others in the period from 1848 to 1858 and considered a plan for the work to which he wanted to devote his whole life. Spencer applies in Psychology (his second work, published in 1855) to psychology the hypothesis of the natural origin of species and points out that generic experience can explain what is inexplicable by individual experience. Therefore, Darwin considers this philosopher one of his predecessors.

"Synthetic Philosophy"

Gradually, Spencer begins to develop his own system. It was influenced by the empiricism of his predecessors, mainly Mill and Hume, the criticism of Kant, refracted through the prism of Hamilton (a representative of the school of the so-called “common sense”), as well as the positivism of Comte and the natural philosophy of Schelling. However, his main idea philosophical system was the idea of development.

Herbert devoted 36 years of his life to “Synthetic Philosophy,” his main work. This work glorified Spencer, who was declared the most brilliant philosopher living at that time.

Herbert Spencer in 1858 decided to announce a subscription for the publication of the work. He published the first issue in 1860. In the period from 1860 to 1863, “Fundamental Principles” was published. However, due to financial difficulties, the publication had difficulty moving forward.

Material difficulties

Spencer suffers poverty and losses, and is on the verge of poverty. We should add to this the nervous fatigue that interfered with work. In 1865, the philosopher bitterly informed readers that he was forced to suspend the publication of this series. Two years after Herbert's father died, he received a small inheritance, which somewhat improved his financial situation.

Meet Youmans, US publication

Herbert Spencer at this time met Youmans, an American who published his works in the USA. In this country, Herbert gained wide popularity earlier than in England. Youmans and American fans provide him with financial support, which allows the philosopher to resume publishing his books. The friendship between Youmans and Spencer lasted 27 years, until the death of the former. Herbert's name is gradually becoming known. The demand for his books is increasing. He covers financial losses in 1875 and makes a profit.

Spencer makes 2 trips to the south of Europe in subsequent years, mainly in London. In 1886, the philosopher was forced to interrupt his work for 4 years due to poor health. The last volume was published in 1896, in the fall.

Herbert Spencer: basic ideas

His huge work (“Synthetic Philosophy”) consists of 10 volumes. It includes “Fundamentals”, “Fundamentals of Psychology”, “Fundamentals of Biology”, “Fundamentals of Sociology”. The philosopher believes that the evolutionary law underlies the development of the entire world, including various societies. Matter goes from “incoherent homogeneity” to a state of “coherent heterogeneity,” that is, it differentiates. This law is universal, says Herbert Spencer. Brief description it does not take into account all the nuances, but this is enough for the first acquaintance with this philosopher. Spencer traces its action on specific material in various fields, including the history of society. Herbert Spencer refuses theological explanations. His sociology is devoid of connection with the divine. His understanding of the functioning of society as a single living organism with interconnected parts expands the scope of the study of history and prompts the philosopher to study it. According to Herbert Spencer, the law of equilibrium underlies evolution. Nature, in case of any violation, invariably strives to return to its previous state. Such is the organicism of Herbert Spencer. Since the main importance lies in the education of characters, evolution occurs slowly. Herbert Spencer is not as optimistic about the future as Mill and Comte. We briefly reviewed its main ideas.

The philosopher died in 1903, on December 8, in Brighton. He lived, despite his poor health, for more than 83 years.

Herbert Spencer's theory became the property of educated people. Today we no longer think or forget about who we owe the discovery of this or that idea. Herbert Spencer, whose sociology and philosophy played a huge role in the development of world thought, is one of the greatest minds in history.

Biography

The greatest scientific value is represented by his research on sociology, including his two other treatises: “Social Statics” ( Social Statics, ) and “Sociological Research” ( The Study of Sociology, ) and eight volumes containing systematized sociological data, “Descriptive Sociology” ( Descriptive Sociology, -). Spencer is the founder of the "organic school" in sociology. Society, from his point of view, is an evolving organism, similar to the living organism considered by biological science. Societies can organize and control their own processes of adaptation, and then they develop in the direction of militaristic regimes; they can also allow free and flexible adaptation and then become industrialized states.

However, the inexorable course of evolution makes adaptation “not an accident, but a necessity.” Spencer considered the social philosophy of laissez-faire to be a consequence of the concept of the cosmic force of evolution. The underlying principle of individualism is clearly stated in the Principles of Ethics:

Every person is free to do what he wishes, as long as he does not violate the equal freedom of any other person.

Social evolution is a process of increasing "individuation". In "Autobiography" ( Autobiography, 2 vol., 1904) appears to be an ultra-individualist in character and origin, a person distinguished by extraordinary self-discipline and hard work, but almost devoid of a sense of humor and romantic aspirations. He opposed revolutions and had a sharply negative attitude towards socialist ideas. Believed that human society, like the organic world, develops gradually, evolutionarily. He was an open opponent of education for the poor, and considered the democratization of education harmful.

He proposed an elegant resolution to the chicken and egg paradox: “The chicken is just a way for one egg to produce another egg,” thus reducing one of the objects. This is quite in line with modern evolutionary biology, popularized in particular by Richard Dawkins' The Selfish Genome.

Concept of social institutions

Society consists of 3 relatively autonomous parts (systems of “organs”):

supportive- production of necessary products
distributive(distributive) - division of benefits based on the division of labor (provides connection between parts of the social organism)
regulatory(state) - organization of parts based on their subordination to the whole.

Types of societies

Military type of society- military conflicts and extermination or enslavement of the defeated by the winner; centralized control. The state interferes in industry, trade and spiritual life, imposes monotony, passive obedience, lack of initiative, and interferes with natural adaptation to the demands of the environment. Government intervention not only does not bring any benefit, but is even downright harmful.

Personal rights

List of individual rights according to Spencer:

Spencer defended “the right of every man to conduct his affairs as he pleases, whatever may be his pursuits, so long as they do not interfere with the liberty of others.” Political rights are needed in order to protect personal rights. “Political rights must be so distributed that not only individuals, but also classes cannot oppress each other.” However, despite all his liberalism, Spencer was against granting political rights to women.

Criticism

Critics argue that Spencer's views served as a "scientific" cover for racial prejudice. Darwin's theory of evolution was misinterpreted by Spencer as describing intellectual and moral progress. Based on his doctrine of Social Darwinism, Spencer came to the conclusion that non-white races were inferior to Europeans on the evolutionary ladder. Spencer's views contributed to the development of such inhumane practices as the forced sterilization of criminals and the "feeble-minded." The ideology of "inferior races" was used by the Nazis to justify the murder of Slavs, Jews, Gypsies and

English Herbert Spencer

British philosopher and sociologist, one of the founders of evolutionism, ideologist of liberalism

Brief biography

English philosopher, one of the most outstanding sociologists, creator of the organic school of sociology, one of the founders of positivism - born on April 27, 1820 in Derby (Derbyshire). His health was a constant source of concern for his parents. IN early childhood and in school years Herbert did not shine with knowledge and did not obey his parents. The father put a lot of effort into instilling original thinking in the boy, and physical exercise helped him become much stronger.

As a thirteen-year-old teenager, Spencer was sent to be raised by his priest uncle. The uncle insisted that his nephew go to Cambridge, but the matter was limited to three years preparatory course. Spencer, having left for hometown, was engaged in self-education and subsequently never regretted that he did not have a university diploma. As a continuation of the teaching dynasty, Spencer worked at a school for several months after receiving his secondary education. Despite his obvious pedagogical gift, he himself showed greater interest in technology and mathematics and knew them well. He gladly accepted the offer to become an engineer on the railway under construction.

In 1841, Herbert left his job, realizing that he would not become a financially secure person. For two years, increasing his level of education, he studied classical philosophy. At the same stage of the biography, his first works appeared in print. During 1843-1846. He again works as an engineer, but at the same time he is increasingly fascinated by politics. Having received several patents for inventions in 1846, Spencer gave up his career as an engineer and devoted his energies to journalism. In 1848 he became assistant editor of the Economist magazine, in which, from 1848 to 1853. His articles covering economic problems are published.

It took him a whole decade (1848-1858) to develop a plan that would unite all philosophy into a single whole with the dominant idea of development. In 1850, Spencer's book “Social Statistics” was published, which had considerable success and inspired the author to new works. In 1852, he continued to formulate his system in the article “Hypothesis of Development,” anticipating Darwin's theory of the evolution of the animal world. At the end of the 50s. Spencer made sketches of the main work of his life - “Synthetic Philosophy”, which in total would take him 36 years of his life. Thanks to this work, he would earn a reputation as the most brilliant philosopher of his time.

Deciding in 1858 to attract readers to subscribe to the publication of this work, he throughout 1860-1863. publishes materials, after which he encounters great financial difficulties. Nervous fatigue prevents him from working systematically. In 1865, subscribers received news that the series could not be published further, but two years later, a small inheritance received from his father and the help of a new acquaintance, the American Youmans, helped him resume publication. In the USA, Spencer becomes more famous than in his homeland. In 1875, the publication of his works finally made it possible to make the first profits.

In 1886, due to lack of strength to continue work, he suspended it for four whole years, but his spirit was not broken by exhausting physical suffering. In 1896, the last volume of Spencer's most important work was published. Suffering from health problems all his life, Spencer nevertheless lived to a ripe old age and died in Brighton on December 8, 1903.

Biography from Wikipedia

Herbert Spencer(English Herbert Spencer; April 27, 1820, Derby - December 8, 1903, Brighton) - English philosopher and sociologist, one of the founders of evolutionism, whose ideas were very popular in late XIX century, founder of the organic school in sociology; ideologist of liberalism. His sociological views are a continuation of the sociological views of Saint-Simon and Comte; Lamarck and K. Baer, Smith and Malthus had a certain influence on the development of the idea of evolution.

Born in Derby (Derbyshire) in the family of a teacher. Due to poor health, he did not attend school until the age of 13 and was educated at home. Refused an offer to study at Cambridge (subsequently refused a professorship at University College London and membership in the Royal Society).

Was a teacher. From 1837 he worked as an engineer on the construction of the railway. In 1841 he left work and began self-education. In 1843 he headed the engineering bureau, in 1846 he received a patent for a sawing and planing machine. Soon he decided to take up journalism. In 1848-1853 he worked as a journalist (assistant editor in the Economist magazine). Was closely acquainted with J. Eliot, J. G. Lewis, T. Huxley, J. S. Mill and J. Tyndall, in recent years life with B. Webb. During several trips to France he met with O. Comte. In 1853 he received an inheritance and was able to devote himself entirely to philosophy and science.

Views

Spencer's views combined evolutionism, the principle of non-intervention (laissez faire) and the concept of philosophy as a generalization of all sciences, as well as other ideological trends of his time. The lack of systematic education and reluctance to study the works of his predecessors led to the fact that Spencer drew knowledge from those sources with which he happened to become acquainted.

The key to his system of unified science is the work “Fundamental Principles” ( First Principles, 1862), in the first chapters of which it is argued that we cannot know anything about the ultimate reality. This "unknowable" goes beyond scientific research, and religion simply uses a metaphor in order to somehow imagine it and be able to worship this “thing in itself.” The second part of the work sets out the cosmic theory of evolution (theory of progress), which Spencer considers to be a universal principle underlying all areas of knowledge and summing them up. In 1852, seven years before the publication of Charles Darwin's Origin of Species, Spencer wrote the article "The Hypothesis of Development" ( The Development Hypothesis), which outlined the idea of evolution, which largely followed the theories of Lamarck and C. Baer. Subsequently, Spencer recognized natural selection as one of the factors of evolution (he is the author of the term “survival of the fittest”). Starting from the fundamental laws of physics and the idea of change, Spencer comes to understand evolution as “the integration of matter, accompanied by the dispersion of motion, transferring matter from an indefinite, incoherent homogeneity into a definite, coherent heterogeneity, and producing a parallel transformation of the motion retained by matter.” All things have a common origin, but through the inheritance of traits acquired in the process of adaptation to the environment, their differentiation occurs; when the process of adaptation ends, a coherent, orderly universe emerges. Ultimately, every thing reaches a state of complete adaptation to its environment, but such a state is unstable. Therefore, the last step in evolution is nothing more than the first step in the process of “dispersal”, which, after the completion of the cycle, is again followed by evolution.

Global evolutionism, the universal laws of evolution, developed by Spencer in “Fundamentals”, are extended by him to the field of biology, psychology, sociology, and ethics (which led him to their biologization).

In 1858, Spencer drew up an outline for the essay that became the main work of his life, “Systems of Synthetic Philosophy” ( A System of Synthetic Philosophy), which was supposed to include 10 volumes. The main principles of Spencer's “synthetic philosophy” were formulated at the very first stage of the implementation of his program, in the “Fundamental Principles”. Other volumes have given interpretations in the light of these ideas of various special sciences. The series also included: “Principles of Biology” ( The Principles of Biology, 2 vol., 1864-1867); "Principles of Psychology" ( The Principles of Psychology, in one volume - 1855, in 2 volumes - 1870-1872); "Principles of Sociology" ( The Principles of Sociology, 3 vol., 1876-1896), "Principles of Ethics" ( The Principles of Ethics, 2 vol., 1892-1893).

The greatest scientific value is represented by his research in sociology, including his two other treatises: “Social Statics” ( Social Statics, 1851) and "Sociological Research" ( The Study of Sociology, 1872) and eight volumes containing systematic sociological data, Descriptive Sociology ( Descriptive Sociology, 1873-1881). Spencer is the founder of the "organic school" in sociology. Society, from his point of view, is an evolving organism, similar to the living organism considered by biological science. Societies can organize and control their own processes of adaptation, and then they develop towards militaristic regimes; they can also allow free and flexible adaptation and then become industrialized states.

Every person is free to do what he wishes, as long as he does not violate the equal freedom of any other person.

He opposed revolutions and had a sharply negative attitude towards socialist ideas. He believed that human society, like the organic world, develops gradually, evolutionarily. He was an open opponent of education for the poor, and considered the democratization of education harmful.

He proposed an elegant resolution to the chicken and egg paradox: “The chicken is just a way for one egg to produce another egg,” thus reducing one of the objects. This is quite in line with modern evolutionary biology, popularized, in particular, by Richard Dawkins' The Selfish Genome.

Concept of social institutions

Social institutions are mechanisms for self-organization of people's life together. They ensure the transformation of a person who is asocial by nature into a social being capable of joint action.

Home Institutes- family, marriage, parenting problems.
Ritual (ceremonial) - are designed to regulate the everyday behavior of people, establishing customs, rituals, etiquette, etc.
Political- the emergence is associated with the transfer of intragroup conflicts to the sphere of conflicts between groups; Conflicts and wars played a decisive role in the formation of the political and class structure of society (the need for defense or conquest unites society most of all).
Church- temples, churches, parish schools, religious traditions.
Professional and industrial institutes- arise on the basis of the division of labor; professional (guilds, workshops, trade unions) - consolidate groups of people according to professional occupations; industrial - support the production structure of society. The importance of social production increases with the transition from militarized societies to industrial ones: it is accompanied by an increase in the role of labor relations, and direct violence gives way to internal self-restraint.

Society

The most important principle of his sociology is the likening of society to an organism (organicism).

Society is an aggregate (set) of individuals (individuals are cells, physiological units), characterized by a certain similarity and constancy of their lives. It is like a biological organism - it grows (and is not built, which is why Spencer opposed any reforms) and increases in volume, while simultaneously complicating the structure and dividing functions.

Society consists of 3 relatively autonomous parts (systems of “organs”):

supportive- production of necessary products
distributive(distributive) - division of benefits based on the division of labor (provides connection between parts of the social organism)
regulatory(state) - organization of parts based on their subordination to the whole.

Types of societies

Military type of society- military conflicts and extermination or enslavement of the defeated by the winner; centralized control. The state interferes in industry, trade and spiritual life, imposes monotony, passive obedience, lack of initiative, and interferes with natural adaptation to requirements environment. Government intervention not only does not bring any benefit, but is even downright harmful.

Industrial type- industrial competition, where the strongest in the field of intellectual and moral qualities wins. The struggle in such a society is a benefit for the whole society, since as a result the intellectual and moral level of society as a whole grows; political freedom, peaceful activities.

Worst type - survival and prosperity of the weakest, that is, people with lower intellectual and moral qualities, which will lead to the degradation of the entire society.

Social evolution

Three formulas for explaining social evolution: “natural selection”, “struggle for existence”, “survival of the fittest”.

The government should not interfere with the natural processes occurring in society. Only under such conditions will “adapted” people survive, and “unadapted” people die out; only the strong will be able to adapt and achieve ever higher levels of historical development.

State forced redistribution of social benefits should become a private matter, the task of which is to “mitigate the injustices of nature.”

Socialism and communism are impossible. People are characterized by love of power, ambition, injustice and dishonesty. “All attempts to accelerate the progress of mankind with the help of administrative measures lead only to the revival of institutions characteristic of the lower (that is, military) type of society - moving backward, wanting to go forward.”

This formulation of the question allows for the recognition of the objective development of social phenomena, but it leads to their biologization, to the defense of exploitation and oppression as supposedly natural phenomena. The extension of the principle of “struggle for existence” to societies creates the basis for one of the odious currents of sociology, the so-called social Darwinism.

Personal rights

List of individual rights according to Spencer:

personal security,
free movement,
freedom of conscience,
freedom of speech,
freedom of the press, etc.

Spencer defended “the right of every man to conduct his affairs as he pleases, whatever may be his occupations, so long as they do not interfere with the liberties of others.” Political rights are needed to protect individual rights. “Political rights must be so distributed that not only individuals, but also classes cannot oppress each other.” However, despite all his liberalism, Spencer was against granting political rights to women.

Criticism

Critics argue that Spencer's views provided a "scientific" cover for racial prejudice. Darwin's theory of evolution was misinterpreted by Spencer as describing intellectual and moral progress. Based on his doctrine of Social Darwinism, Spencer came to the conclusion that non-white races were inferior to Europeans on the evolutionary ladder. Spencer's views contributed to the development of such inhumane practices as the forced sterilization of criminals and the "feeble-minded." The ideology of "inferior races" was used by the Nazis to justify the murder of Jews, Gypsies and homosexuals.

Spencer's works

"Social Statics" (1851)
"System of Synthetic Philosophy" ( System of Synthetic Philosophy, 1862-96) - The main work in 10 volumes
- "Basic Beginnings" ( First Principles, 1862). - DJVU. Archived from the original on February 3, 2012.
- "Foundations of Sociology" ( The Principles of Sociology, 1874-1896). - PDF. Archived from the original on February 3, 2012.
"Man and State" ( The Man versus the State, 1884)
“Philosophy and religion. The nature and reality of religion" ( Philosophy and Religion. The Nature and Reality of Religion, 1885)
"Proper Boundaries state power» ( The Proper Sphere of Government, 1843)
“Mental, moral and physical education” ( Education: Intellectual, Moral, Physical, 1861)
"Facts and Comments" ( Facts and Comments, 1902)
"Essays: Scientific, Political and Philosophical" ( Essays: Scientific, Political, and Speculative, 3 vol., 1891)
"Ethics Data" ( The Data of Ethics, 1879)
"Justice" ( Justice, 1891)

Categories:

The famous positivist philosopher Herbert Spencer was born in England, in the county of Derby on April 27, 1820. In his early youth, Spencer was a civil engineer, but already in 1845 he left this profession and devoted himself entirely to science. In addition to a number of scientific and journalistic articles, which were initially published in various periodicals, and then published separately in three volumes under the general title: “Essays”, Spencer wrote: “Social Statics”, “The Study of Sociology”, “ Education" and "System of synthetic philosophy". This last work is the main work that gave Herbert Spencer worldwide fame. Under the general title: “System of Synthetic Philosophy,” a number of volumes have been published, which, although connected by general ideas, can largely be considered as separate works. “Synthetic Philosophy” consists of: one volume of “Fundamentals”, two volumes of “Foundations of Biology”, two volumes of “Foundations of Psychology”, three volumes of “Foundations of Sociology” and two volumes of “Foundations of the Science of Morality”.

In "Fundamental Principles" Herbert Spencer lays out the most general provisions his philosophy. Based on the principle of the relativity of knowledge, he arrives at what is typical for all positivists the conclusion that "ultimate scientific ideas correspond to realities that cannot be comprehended", that "the reality behind all appearances must forever remain unknowable", and philosophy must therefore concentrate on the study of not essence things, but given to us in experience relations between them. Moving into the realm of this “knowable,” Spencer begins by defining philosophy as a completely unified knowledge. From this point of view, two forms of philosophy can be distinguished: general philosophy, in which particular truths serve to clarify universal truths, and private philosophy, in which recognized universal truths serve to interpret particular truths. "Fundamental Principles" deals with philosophy of the first kind, and all other parts of "Synthetic Philosophy" are devoted to philosophy of the second kind.

English philosopher Herbert Spencer

The main doctrine of Herbert Spencer is the doctrine of evolution, which he defines as follows: “Evolution is the integration of matter and the accompanying dispersion of motion, matter passing from a state of indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a state of definite, coherent heterogeneity, and the preserved motion undergoing parallel changes.” It is impossible not to point out the similarity of Spencer's ideas about evolution with the teaching von Baer, however, Spencer expanded Baer’s thought so much and reworked it so originally that his right to be considered a completely independent creator of the doctrine he expounds cannot be doubted. Herbert Spencer considers the main reason for evolution to be “the instability of the homogeneous.” Infinite and absolute homogeneity, according to his ideas, would be completely stable, but in the absence of such homogeneity, a redistribution of matter and force inevitably begins, in which different parts of the homogeneous are subjected to unequal action of external forces, and as a result, the homogeneous turns into heterogeneous. In the end, the basis of all evolutionary phenomena is the principle of conservation (constancy) of force. Thus, Spencer takes as the main starting point of his ideas the undoubted and generally accepted principle of the conservation of energy, and his entire doctrine of evolution is a logical conclusion from this principle. Weakness Spencer's ideas consist in an insufficiently developed theory of knowledge, in the fact that he operates without sufficient criticism on the concepts of matter and force, and the very doctrine of the relativity of knowledge is assimilated by him in the unsatisfactory form in which it was before him. Although the doctrine of physical evolution, as a transition from an indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a definite, coherent heterogeneity, cannot be accepted in its entirety wrong,it is undoubtedly insufficient. The doctrine of the cause of the evolution of matter then underwent especially profound changes.

In “Principles of Biology,” Herbert Spencer develops ideas about the application of the law of evolution to the organic world, to the phenomena of life, which he defines as “the continuous adaptation of internal relations to external relations.” The main idea underlying Spencer's biology is the doctrine of the dependence of the manifestations of life on the environment. The interactions of the organism and the environment are subject, according to Spencer, to the mechanical law of equality of action and reaction. All changes in organic matter are aimed at establishing a balance between the action of the environment and the reaction of the organism. This equilibrium is established either by direct equilibrium, when external force directly causes known structural changes, or through indirect balancing - Darwinian natural selection. Thus, in the question of the origin of species, Herbert Spencer admits both Lamarckian the principle of inheritance of functionally acquired changes, and Darwinian the principle of natural selection. The principle of transmission to offspring of functionally acquired changes during further development biology was not confirmed.

The Foundations of Psychology are distinguished by the greatest wealth of ideas. Here Spencer studies the evolution of the spirit. Starting from the most elementary manifestations of spiritual life, he, step by step, constantly remaining faithful to his basic method, reproduces the structure of its most complex manifestations. Then, taking the most complex manifestations of the spirit, he, by analysis, gradually resolves them into their elementary constituent parts. By means of this double device (synthesis and analysis), Herbert Spencer proves with remarkable consistency the fundamental unity and continuity of the structure of the human spirit, and the close connection between spiritual life and the outside world. According to Spencer, mental phenomena are subjective expressions of external reality. In his Psychology, Herbert Spencer takes an original position in the debate between sensualists, who claim that there is nothing in the spirit that was not previously in sensation, and apriorists, who, in one form or another, recognized that some spiritual phenomena do not depend on sensations. Spencer acknowledges the existence of innate "forms of thought" (and contemplation), but argues that these "forms" are the product of mental evolution, that they are nothing more than the recorded experience of ancestors. Being innate to us, they owe their historical origin to experience.

Herbert Spencer's "Principles of Sociology" is almost as rich in secondary ideas as "Principles of Psychology." As for the main idea, it is still the same here - the idea of evolution. In parts 3, 4, 5 and 6 of the Foundations of Sociology, Spencer studies the evolution of domestic, ritual, political and ecclesiastical institutions; the first two parts examine “Data from Sociology” and “Indications from Sociology.” Of Spencer's sociological ideas, the most famous are the doctrine of the origin of primitive beliefs and doctrine of analogy between society and organism.

Two volumes of “Foundations of the Science of Morality” are devoted to the study of the evolution of morality. Spencer is a strong supporter of utilitarianism, which, however, in its revision is hedonism (a philosophical theory that places pleasure at the forefront).

The philosophy of Herbert Spencer received very different assessments among his contemporaries. Some scientists ( J. Stuart Mill, Lewis, Ribot) considered Spencer a first-class genius, one of the greatest philosophers, but others, paying tribute to his comprehensive information and the wealth of his basic ideas, still refused to recognize Spencer as a first-class mind. However, it can hardly be denied that the scheme of evolution and the ingenious attempts to reconcile the sensualists and apriorists made the teaching of Herbert Spencer a rather important fact in the history of philosophy.

Herbert Spencer the main ideas of the English sociologist and philosopher are briefly outlined in this article.

Spencer main ideas briefly

Herbert Spencer is the founder of the organic movement in sociology. He viewed society as a living, biological organism. The thinker’s main works are “Political Institutions”, “Fundamental Principles” and “System of Synthetic Philosophy” in 3 volumes.

The social world is a direct continuation of the natural world. The world itself evolves in 3 stages - pre-organic, organic, inorganic.
Created a theory of society. According to it, there is a scientific pyramid: mathematics – biology – psychology – sociology – development of the human psyche. At the peak of the pyramid, the formation of abstract thinking and the idea of abstract entities occurs. Society, according to Spencer, is an entity, a totality in relation to the individual, a reality that is not reducible to people and is self-sufficient in itself. Society is an organism similar to a living one. Its main characteristics: progressive differentiation of structure and structure, continuous growth, increase in internal connectivity and mass (progressive integration), progressive differentiation of functions. Society is progressing towards greater definition and diversity, volume and connectedness.
He identified the basic subsystems of society, which are functionally unified. This:

The digestive system is the industrial organization of society, a productive activity. It is determined by geology, ecology, geography, and demography.
The distribution system is communication means society (roads, communications, agents, regional connections) and the system of division of labor.
A regulatory system is a spending and ruling system that is based on cooperation. This system arises as a result of public wars. Components of the regulatory system: army, finance, government, banks. Over time, the system becomes more complex.

According to Spencer, there are basic institutions: church institutions, ritual, family, politics. The function of a church institution is to bring society together through the implementation of rules of behavior and rituals of worship. When ritual control is replaced by moral control, the church loses its meaning. The ritual is primary form political and military control, more ancient than ecclesiastical or political. It arises for the cohesion of society. Family forms: endogamy and exogamy. Forms of marriage - polygamy (in a military society), polyandry, monogamy (in an industrial society). Political institutions and organizations are organizations that are associated with a form of political control in a particular territory.
He identified 2 types of society - military and industrial. The military society is engaged in the conquest of territories and new labor. Its economy is built on forced labor. The main thing in it political institution is the state. Industrial society is characterized by free cooperation based on mutually beneficial contracts. The basis of its economy is a system of division of labor based on trade and industrial interactions. The main features of industrial society are freedom of conscience, geographical freedom political views and the individual, an army for the people.
Philosophy studies sensory phenomena that can be systematized.
The main task of philosophical science is the reconciliation of religion and science.

We hope that from this article you learned what the main ideas of Herbert Spencer are.

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