Cognitive dissonance - what is this concept in psychology? Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance The concept of cognitive dissonance suggests

For the average person, the term “cognitive dissonance” causes confusion. In this review we will present this concept in a more accessible sense.

From a scientific point of view, cognitive dissonance is a mental state in which a person, when faced with a stressful situation, experiences an internal imbalance and contradictions arise with the usual perception of reality. “Kognitio” means knowledge, “dissonantia” means no consonance.

An example of cognitive dissonance in life can be considered a situation when one day you meet your friend and his exact copy - a twin, whom you had no idea about. You feel a sense of contradiction from surprise. The state of mind at the moment is dissonance. Simply put, it arises in response to unusual manifestations of previous situations, views different from yours, behavior of another that does not fit into established norms, and so on. Most often, the process is not controlled in any way; a person is not able to foresee such a reaction.

History of the term

The term was proposed by the American psychologist Fritz Heider, who developed the theory of cognitive dissonance. And the concept came into widespread use thanks to his compatriot, Leon Festinger. Festinger fully described this phenomenon, and in 1957 he founded an entire field - cognitive psychology.

The researchers relied on rumors that emerged after an earthquake that occurred in India in 1934. Citizens of neighboring regions, which were not affected by the disaster, began to convey incorrect information that the tremors would be repeated and intensified, this time affecting all nearby areas. These rumors, which have no basis in reality, have filled the whole of India.

Festinger studied and tried to give a logical explanation for the fact that residents en masse believed bad news for which there was no reason. The scientist came to the conclusion that it is human nature to seek inner harmony for oneself, to establish a balance between what motivates one to behave in a certain way and what information is supplied from the outside. That is, citizens gave out false messages, unconsciously trying to drown out and justify their own fear of the threat of a possible earthquake. They unintentionally explained their irrational state to themselves.

Basic theory

Leon Festinger developed the theory of cognitive dissonance, which moved psychology forward in many ways. Allowed science to explain some conflict situations that arise both between people and within individuals. According to Festinger, cognitive dissonance is a discrepancy between the subject’s experience and the perception of the current situation.

His theory reveals aspects of how the resulting imbalance affects the individual. There are different types of dissonance and methods of getting rid of psychological stress. Leon Festinger formulated 2 main hypotheses:

• As soon as the subject feels an internal contradiction, he begins to make efforts aimed at overcoming it, since it generates strong internal tension.
• The second assumption directly follows from the first. The individual makes every effort not to find himself in stressful situations again when cognitive dissonance is fully manifested.

Leon Festinger, forming his direction, proceeded from the postulates of Gestalt psychology. According to his theory, a person perceives the emerging contradiction as an unpleasant event that requires correction. A subject faced with an internal imbalance receives a certain incentive to change his thinking:

• the personality completely changes previous attitudes and views;
• or replaces the concept with one that is closest to the traumatic situation that caused cognitive dissonance.

In Russia, the concept was introduced by Viktor Pelevin. The famous writer used the term in his works of fiction, using simple words to explain it that anyone could understand.

In everyday life, some people call events that puzzle them that way. Most often, such internal contradictions, characteristic of cognitive dissonance, appear due to religious differences, moral and ethical differences, or against the background of strong emotions in response to any other unexpected action.

Causes of cognitive dissonance

Internal conflict and mismatch occurs for a number of reasons:

• Discrepancy in social rules of behavior and personal beliefs;
• The contradiction between a person's accepted way of thinking and the behavior he chooses and what he sees in another subject;
• If a person, out of stubbornness and protest, comes into conflict with established ethical and cultural norms, or has radical ideas, then he inevitably faces misunderstanding from others, which causes dissonance in his personality.

Cognitive dissonance in practice

Let's analyze a few examples.

A) Your friend was kind, quiet and calm with you. He did not raise his voice to others, he was meek and harmless with everyone. He evokes a complete feeling of a decent person, he is sympathetic to you, thanks to his kindness and righteousness.

But one day you see him on a walk with his wife. The acquaintance does not notice you yet, because his behavior is natural, real. You hear in shock how he insults his wife, using obscenities and aggression. He waves his fists, expressing intense anger. For you, there comes a moment of divergence between your existing image, opinion about this person and his real behavior.

B) You get a job in a prestigious, large organization with more than a thousand employees, each of whom has an excellent salary. And the general director of the enterprise is a millionaire, a person of high income and status. And then one working day you come to the common kitchen, where all the employees eat, and watch how your boss, the owner of the largest company and funds, washes the floor. He only put things in order after his subordinates had not cleaned up after lunch. And you experience cognitive dissonance - a discrepancy between ideas about the behavior of a person of high position and what was observed in reality.

C) You are walking along the sidewalk and notice how a certain dirty man of no fixed abode asks for change. At the same time, stand behind cover, that is, the beggar cannot see you. After about five minutes, this subject suddenly gets up, takes his things and goes to a car parked nearby. And it’s hard to imagine that a homeless person could have a car! Which is what causes you cognitive dissonance.

Ways to get rid of internal discomfort

Let's look at one more example first. Let's say a person is an experienced smoker. Everyone around him tells him about the dangers of this habit: doctors, relatives, colleagues at work, the press. Sooner or later, he may experience cognitive dissonance because he does not understand why smoking is dangerous and why everyone is so actively opposed. You can overcome stress:

• By changing your behavior - get rid of a bad habit;
• Convince yourself, change your attitude. Convince yourself that there is no danger from smoking, and everyone around you is only exaggerating and does not have reliable knowledge
• Do not react in any way, ignore incoming information

The last two strategies are unlikely to produce effective results. Because the situation with dissonance may be repeated and worsened.

So, methods for overcoming internal conflict can be described as follows:

• Changing your actions. If you understand that you are doing something wrong, that you are not meeting the expectations of yourself or your loved ones, then change your tactics. A complete refusal to take any action is also possible.
• Changing your attitude. In order not to feel guilt or shame, convince yourself that you are doing the right thing, going the right way. Reevaluate your attitude towards the situation.
• Dosage of information. Don't take criticism personally, don't react to it at all, and try to capture only positive opinions. Protect yourself from a possible influx of negative emotions
• Look at the situation from different angles. Cover it in every detail so that you have a complete set of data that will allow you to choose an acceptable behavior strategy if the previous one does not work. Stick to it.
• Add other elements. You can introduce some other factor into the situation, which will dilute the consequences of its perception. The task is to carve out a positive side from a stressful phenomenon. Create a more favorable position for the individual.

Conclusion

Cognitive dissonance is, of course, a kind of test for a person and his endurance. But you shouldn’t dwell on the stress and negative events you’ve experienced. He is capable of being useful. To do this, you should learn not to make excuses to yourself in unsuccessful attempts to reduce the effect of internal disharmony. Instead of a panic reaction, composure will come to you, which will help you learn a lesson from an alarming situation and become stronger.

© Anistratenko A.A., translation into Russian, 2018

© Znaesheva I.V., translation into Russian, 2018

© Allahverdov V., preface, 2018

© Design. LLC Publishing House E, 2018

What is cognitive dissonance and how does it occur?

How cognitive dissonance affects our behavior and perception of the world

Why is it difficult for us to give up our beliefs and faith?

Can cognitive dissonance affect decision making?

How are cognitive dissonance and motivation related?

Dear reader! You are holding the Great Book in front of you. Over the 150 years of independent existence of psychology, a lot of books have been written. It's impossible to read everything. You need to read the best, first of all the classics. And whoever compiled a list of the most influential books in psychology would definitely include this work by Leon Festinger, first published in 1957. Great books never become obsolete.

L. Festinger was born on May 8, 1919 in New York into a Jewish family of emigrants from Russia Alex Festinger and Sarah Solomon, where he became a bachelor in 1939 and a master in 1940 at the University of Iowa, where he began working as a research fellow at the Center studying the child. In 1942 he received a Doctor of Philosophy degree in psychology. His supervisor was Kurt Lewin (there is no doubt the influence of Lewin's field theory and the Gestaltists in general on Festinger's work). During World War II (1942–1945) he served on the Airman Selection and Training Committee at the University of Rochester. In 1945, he joined the work of Lewin’s group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and later, in 1947, after Lewin’s death, he moved with the group to the University of Michigan. In 1951 he worked at the University of Minnesota, and in 1955 he moved to Stanford. And finally, from 1968 until his death in 1989, he was a professor at the New School for Social Research in New York. Throughout his life he received many awards and honors (including the prestigious Outstanding Scientist Award of the American Psychological Association in 1959).

Psychologists usually study the amazing phenomena of our mental life and try to find explanations for them. Great psychologists go further - they see a person behind these phenomena in all his unsolved completeness. Leon Festinger, even among the greatest, stood out for his breadth of interests - he dealt with decision making, the problem of loss of individuality in a group, the ways in which people compare themselves with others, the psychological aspects of the technology of making prehistoric tools, visual perception and eye movement, group dynamics, etc. But his main achievement was the creation of the theory of cognitive dissonance.

L. Festinger made a cognitive revolution even before the emergence of cognitive psychology, and in the field of social psychology, which was as far removed from cognitive research as possible. He derived a law: if two elements of thinking contradict each other (are in dissonance), then this prompts the person to behave in a way that reduces the dissonance. The fact that a person strives to live in a rational world and get rid of contradictions was postulated by the philosophers of the New Age. At the end of the 19th century, I. Bernheim, in experiments with post-hypnotic suggestion, demonstrated that a person strives to find a reasonable, even if incorrect, explanation for his own behavior, which - which the person himself did not realize - was suggested to him in hypnosis. Z. Freud observed Bernheim's experiments and described, within the framework of the theory he built, the unconscious mechanisms of a person's struggle with contradictions (among them - repression and rationalization). But the explanations remained largely speculative, and in Freud’s constructions, moreover, with a strong mythological flavor.

Festinger shows in specially designed conditions: if a person commits an act that contradicts his beliefs, then cognitive dissonance arises. To eliminate dissonance, external justification is used (I was forced, ordered, or paid well). But if there are few reasons for external justification, then a person looks for an internal justification for this action, for example, without realizing it, he changes his own beliefs, i.e., as Festinger says, he smoothes out cognitive dissonance. The ideas and experimental designs he generated made such a strong impression that they gave rise to a wave of followers who carried out amazingly ingenious experimental research (see, for example, the review works of E. Aronson, who, precisely under the influence of the book that you are holding before your eyes, came to the decision to study social psychology).

I will give an example showing the heuristic significance of Festinger’s theory even in the zone where he himself most likely would not have expected to see the manifestation of his theoretical constructs. In our research at St. Petersburg University, we found that if a person makes mistakes in simple cognitive tasks (mistakes when adding numbers, makes typos, etc.), then it turns out that he tends to repeat his own mistakes, even if he himself does not notice. The effect of repeating mistakes clearly resembles the smoothing out of cognitive dissonance - having made a mistake, a person, without realizing it, seems to make a decision: since under the influence of certain conditions he made a mistake, then it is not a mistake at all, his behavior is justified, and therefore he has the right to repeat it.

Festinger not only created a theory that is based on general principles, but also managed to derive consequences that can be subjected to experimental testing. His theory turned out to be heuristic - other researchers discovered phenomena predicted by the theory even where Festinger himself would hardly have expected to see them. Thus, he created a truly scientific theory. And his book teaches us the most important thing - how to do real science.

Viktor Allahverdov,

professor, doctor of psychological sciences,

Head of the Department of General Psychology, St. Petersburg State University

This preface is mainly devoted to the history of the ideas on which this book is based. The chronological format I have chosen is the best way to pay tribute to the colleagues who provided me with significant assistance during the development of the book, as well as to explain what prompted me to write it and what my original goals were.

Late in the fall of 1951, Bernard Berelson, director of the Center for the Study of Behavior at the Ford Foundation, asked me if I would be interested in writing an analytical review of the important scientific field of “communication and social influence.” A huge amount of factual material has been accumulated in this area, which has not yet been generalized by anyone or worked out at a theoretical level. It covered a range of studies from the study of the influence of mass media to the analysis of interpersonal communication. If it were possible to extract from this material a system of theoretical statements that would connect with each other many facts already known in this area and allow new predictions to be made, then this would be a work of undoubted value.

Cognitive dissonance is a mental state accompanied by discomfort caused by inconsistency or inconsistency in the mind of a number of contradictory ideas and concepts. Despite the complexity of the name and definition, every person encounters something similar almost every day. Sometimes we, without knowing it, plunge ourselves into such a state, but more often this happens for reasons independent of the person.

Meaning of the concept

Cognitive dissonance is a psychological phenomenon that involves the occurrence of some inconsistency between two cognitions. Thus, often in his actions a person has to either neglect social guidelines or sacrifice personal principles. Because of this, a certain disagreement arises between action and belief.

As a result of the onset of cognitive dissonance, a person may resort to justifying his own actions or misconceptions that run counter to generally accepted norms. Otherwise, the individual has to direct his thinking in a new direction, which would correspond to the opinions of others and reduce contradictory feelings.

Cognitive dissonance - what is it in simple words?

Many psychological concepts and terms are not so easy to understand and understand their meaning. Sometimes detailed explanation is required. This also applies to such a phenomenon as cognitive dissonance. What is this in simple words? The explanation of this concept is much simpler than it might seem at first glance.

Each person has some kind of life experience and personal opinion regarding the solution of certain situations. However, it is not always possible to solve a particular problem based on one’s own ideas. Sometimes a person goes against his own opinion, for example, to please the opinions of others, social values, or the norms of the law. This discrepancy between thoughts and actions is called cognitive dissonance.

Sometimes it happens that an individual consciously or unconsciously violates certain rules (or even commits a crime). In this case, it is important to receive justification not only from others, but also from yourself. Thus, a person begins to look for or invent moments that can mitigate guilt in order to ease internal contradiction. It is also worth noting that such contradictions can arise not only among one individual, but also at the level of the collective.

Cognitive dissonance also often occurs when a person has to make an important decision. The individual is overcome by doubts that do not go away even when the final choice is made. Mental activity for some time will be aimed at sorting through possible options and their consequences in your head.

Causes of cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance can arise due to several common reasons, among which the following are worth highlighting:

• inconsistency of ideas and concepts that guide a person when making certain decisions;
• discrepancy between life beliefs and generally accepted norms in society or in a certain circle;
• the spirit of contradiction caused by the reluctance to follow generally accepted cultural and ethical norms, and especially when they run counter to the law;
• discrepancy between the information obtained as a result of a particular experience and new conditions or situation.

Author of the theory

The author of the theory of cognitive dissonance is Leon Festinger. This doctrine was presented in 1957 and was intended to explain the essence, causes, and patterns of this phenomenon. The author considered this concept as a phenomenon of inconsistency between various thoughts and ideas of an individual (or a group).

Hypotheses of the theory

L. Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance is based on two main hypotheses, which are as follows:

• due to the fact that the occurrence of cognitive dissonance is accompanied by psychological discomfort, the individual will try in every possible way to overcome this discrepancy;
• from the first point we can derive the second, which states that a person will in every possible way avoid situations that could plunge him into such a state.

Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance not only provides an interpretation and clarification of concepts, but also explains ways out of this state. In addition, the scientist considers a number of real cases, which are the most typical examples in psychology.

The essence of the theory

The first thing worth noting is the fact that the theory of cognitive dissonance belongs to the category of motivational ones. This means that this state is decisive in the behavior of the individual. We can say that it is ideas and beliefs that largely influence a person’s actions, as well as his life position. Thus, knowledge cannot be interpreted only as a set of certain facts. These are, first of all, motivational factors that determine human behavior both in everyday life and in non-standard situations.

The concept of cognitive dissonance combines two categories. The first of them is intelligence, which is considered as a set of certain beliefs and knowledge, as well as attitudes towards them. The second is affect, that is, the reaction to pathogens and stimuli. At the very moment when a person ceases to find a connection or feels internal contradictions between these categories, a state of cognitive dissonance occurs.

The process itself is inextricably linked with past events and experiences of the individual. So, having committed a certain act, a person may begin to repent or experience remorse. Moreover, this can happen after a significant period of time. Then the individual begins to look for an excuse for his action or some facts that can mitigate his guilt.

How to reduce dissonance?

The state of cognitive dissonance causes psychological discomfort, which the individual, quite naturally, tries to get rid of (or at least somewhat reduce the unpleasant sensations). There are several ways to achieve relief from a contradictory condition, namely:

• change the line of your behavior (if you feel that you are doing wrong, or are acting contrary to your beliefs, you should direct your efforts in the opposite direction, if this seems possible in this particular case);
• convince yourself (meaning the search for justification for your actions in order to reduce their guilt or even make them correct in your understanding);
• filter information (in order not to feel internal contradictions, you should perceive only positive data, and not take all negativity seriously or avoid it altogether);
• take into account all the information and facts about the current situation, form an idea about it, and then build a new line of behavior that will be considered the only correct one.

How to avoid dissonance

Since the phenomenon of cognitive dissonance is associated with discomfort and psychological stress, many prefer to prevent this condition rather than deal with its consequences later. One of the most accessible ways to achieve this is to avoid any negative information that may contradict your personal beliefs or the current situation. This method fits into the concept of psychological defense, which was developed by Sigmund Freud and later developed by his followers.

In the case where the occurrence of cognitive dissonance could not be avoided, its further development can be combated. To do this, additional elements are introduced into the cognitive system, which are designed to present the current situation in a positive light. In this case, you need to ignore or in every possible way avoid those sources of information that can return you to the initial state.

One of the most common and accessible ways to cope with dissonance is to accept reality and adapt to it. In this regard, it is worth convincing yourself that the situation is acceptable. In addition, if the phenomenon is long-term, then psychological work should be aimed at changing one’s own beliefs

Cognitive dissonance: examples from life

In real life, quite often you can encounter such phenomena that cause a feeling of inconsistency or inconsistency of beliefs with the real situation. This is cognitive dissonance. Their examples are quite numerous.

The simplest example is a gold medalist and a C student who entered the university. It is quite logical that teachers expect high results and a decent level of knowledge from the first, but do not have much hope for the second. However, it may turn out that an excellent student will answer the question very mediocrely and incompletely, while a C student, on the contrary, will give a competent, meaningful answer. In this case, the teacher experiences cognitive dissonance due to the fact that his beliefs turned out to be inconsistent with the real situation.

Another example given by psychologist A. Leontyev illustrates the desire to reduce discomfort. Thus, imprisoned revolutionaries were forced to dig holes as punishment. Naturally, the prisoners found this activity unpleasant and even disgusting. To reduce the feeling of psychological discomfort, many gave their action a new meaning, namely, causing harm to the current regime.

Also, cognitive dissonance can be considered in relation to people who have bad habits (for example, smokers, or those who abuse alcohol. It is quite natural that they all sooner or later realize the harm of these phenomena for their body. In this case, there are two scenarios. Either the individual tries by all available means to get rid of a bad habit, or begins to look for excuses for himself, which in his mind can outweigh the possible harm that will be caused to health.

Another example also relates to a typical life situation. So, for example, you see a beggar on the street who is asking for alms, but by his appearance you can tell that he does not really deserve the money or does not need it that much (or maybe he will spend money not on food or medicine, but on alcohol or cigarettes). Nevertheless, under the influence of your life principles or moral standards, you cannot pass by such a person. Thus, under the guidance of social principles, you do what you do not want.

Sometimes it happens that before an important exam, a student simply does not prepare for it. This may be due to laziness, health conditions, unforeseen circumstances, and so on. Thus, understanding his responsibility for the result and realizing the possible consequences, the individual, nevertheless, does not make any attempts to learn the notes.

Girls who strive to lose weight and torment themselves with diets are often exposed to cognitive dissonance. If at this time they want to eat, for example, a cake, then this will contradict their goals and general ideas about proper nutrition. There are several possible solutions to the problem here. You can continue to insist on your own and deny yourself sweets, or you can stop the diet altogether, making sure that you already look good. You can also make yourself a one-time indulgence, which will later be compensated by fasting or physical activity.

Conclusion

Many scientists and psychologists have studied the issue of cognitive dissonance. It is especially worth paying attention to the works of Leon Festinger, as well as Sigmund Freud and his followers. Their theories are the most complete and contain not only information about the phenomenon itself and its causes, but also about ways to solve the problem.

It is worth noting that the theory that describes the phenomenon of cognitive dissonance relates to motivational ones. The contradiction that arises as a result of the discrepancy between beliefs and desires and real actions largely influences what the individual’s behavior will be in the future. He can come to terms with the situation and try to reconsider his ideas, which will somewhat reduce the state of dissonance, or he can resort to attempts to explain or justify his behavior, avoiding real data and facts (protecting himself from the outside world).

To avoid a state of cognitive dissonance, you should avoid contradictory states and information that contradicts your beliefs. In this way, you can protect yourself from internal contradictions that arise from the need to act contrary to your desires and beliefs.

Cognitive theories of motivation: L. Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance

Introduction

The cognitive dissonance

The emergence of dissonance

Degree of dissonance

Reducing Dissonance

Limits on the increase in dissonance

Conclusion

cognitive dissonance situation

According to cognitive theories of motivation, an individual's behavior depends on his ideas about the world and cognitive perception of the situation. Cognitive theories were started by Leon Festinger (05/08/1919 – 02/11/1989). It is he who owns the theory of cognitive dissonance. Festinger proposed this theory in 1957. The theory is based on the fact that “a person’s interconnected attitudes tend precisely towards coherence” (Festinger L. Theory of cognitive dissonance. St. Petersburg: Yuventa, 1991.)

In this essay I will consider the main pillars of Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance.

Festinger replaces the concept of “inconsistency” with dissonance, and “conformity” with consonance.

The main hypotheses of Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance are as follows (hereinafter quoted):

1. The occurrence of dissonance, which generates psychological discomfort, will motivate the individual to try to reduce the degree of dissonance and, if possible, achieve consonance.

2. If dissonance occurs, in addition to the desire to reduce it, the individual will actively avoid situations and information that may lead to its increase. (End quote)

According to these hypotheses, cognitive dissonance can be defined:

The cognitive dissonance- a discrepancy in a person’s knowledge system, which gives rise to unpleasant experiences in him and encourages him to take actions aimed at reducing or eliminating this contradiction.

In his book, Festinger examines the relevant relationships between “elements” (that is, in fact, a person’s knowledge about a subject). “Two elements are dissonant with respect to each other if, for one reason or another, they do not correspond to each other.” Festinger gives several reasons for the emergence of dissonant relationships between elements:

1. Logical incompatibility. The negation of one element follows from the content of another element based on elementary logic.

2. Cultural customs. Dissonance arises because a given culture defines what is decent and what is not.

3. One specific opinion is part of a more general opinion. Festinger gives the following example: a Democrat votes for the Republican Party in a presidential election.

4. Past experience. For example, a person opens a hot water tap and hopes not to get burned.

The emergence of dissonance

Dissonance occurs in situations where an individual learns new information or witnesses unpredictable events. Festinger argues that dissonance is a daily, constant phenomenon, since there are “very few things in the world that are completely black or completely white.” Festinger argues that dissonance occurs whenever a person is required to express an opinion or make a choice; “dissonance between the awareness of the action being taken and those opinions known to the subject that testify in favor of a different version of the development of events.” We can give an example from everyday life: when coming to a store, a person cannot choose from two equally well-known brands.

Degree of dissonance

The characteristics between which a dissonant relationship arises are the main factor determining the degree of dissonance, according to Festinger. If two elements are dissonant, then the degree of dissonance will be directly proportional to the importance of these cognitive elements. In other words, the more important the information is to a person, the greater the degree of dissonance will be.

In real life, there are almost no systems of cognitive elements in which there is no dissonance. For almost any action performed by a person, there can be at least one element that is in a dissonant relationship with that element. From this, Festinger draws the following conclusion: the more one element has dissonant elements, the less the degree of dissonance. Conversely, if the proportion of dissonant elements is small, then the degree will be much greater.

Reducing Dissonance

Dissonance operates in the same way as motives and needs, since it generates a desire to reduce or eliminate dissonance. And the intensity of this desire depends on the degree of dissonance. Festinger compares the desire to reduce dissonance to the feeling of hunger.

If dissonance occurs between two elements, then this dissonance can be eliminated by changing one of these elements. “There are many possible ways in which this can be achieved, depending on the type of cognitive elements involved in the relationship and the overall cognitive content of the situation.”

Change in behavioral cognitive elements

If dissonance occurs between the environmental knowledge element and the behavioral element, it can only be eliminated by changing the behavioral element. In the simplest way, Festinger calls the change in action or feeling that this behavioral cognitive element represents, because our behavior and feelings are directly dependent on new information. For example, if a person is going for a walk on a sunny day and notices that it is starting to rain, the only thing he can do is return home.

But it is not always possible to reduce dissonance in this way, since it can lead to even more contradictions.

Changing cognitive elements of the environment

This process is more difficult than the previous one because the person must have "a reasonable degree of control over the environment." If an element changes, but the image in the individual's mind about it remains unchanged, then means must be used to ignore or counteract the real situation. As an example, Festinger gives the following situation: “a person can change his opinion about a certain political figure, even if his behavior and political situation remain the same.”

Adding new cognitive elements

This method is designed to reduce the degree of dissonance by adding new ones. For example, a smoker who has two cognitive dissonant elements: the harm of smoking and refusal to quit smoking. He will look for any sources that refute the theory about the dangers of smoking (i.e., look for new cognitive elements), and avoid those that, on the contrary, will increase the degree of dissonance.

Limits on the increase in dissonance

The maximum dissonance between elements is determined by “the amount of resistance to change in the least resistant element.” However, even if there is very strong resistance to change, the overall dissonance in the system can remain at a fairly low level.

Conclusion

So, the theory of cognitive dissonance is built on three main points:

1. There are dissonant and consonant relationships between cognitive elements (or a person’s ideas about the world around him and his behavior)

2. The emergence of cognitive dissonance leads to the emergence in the individual of a desire to reduce or eliminate this dissonance

3. The emergence of such a desire consists of a change in behavior, a change in attitude, or a deliberate search for new information and new opinions regarding the element that generated the dissonance.

Bibliography:

1. Festinger L. Theory of cognitive dissonance. St. Petersburg: Yuventa, 1999 15–52 pp.

2. Andreeva G.M. Psychology of social cognition: a textbook for university students: Aspect Press 2005, 303 pages.

3. Nemov R.S. Psychology: 2000, 662 pages

Cognitive dissonance theory

The theory of cognitive dissonance (from the English cognition - knowledge, dissonance - inconsistency) is a socio-psychological theory created by the American psychologist L. Festinger, in which logically contradictory knowledge about the same subject is assigned the status of motivation, designed to ensure the elimination of what arises when faced with contradictions of feelings of discomfort due to changes in existing knowledge or social attitudes. In the theory of cognitive dissonance, it is believed that there is a body of knowledge about objects and people, called the cognitive system, which can have varying degrees of complexity, coherence and interconnectedness. Moreover, the complexity of a cognitive system depends on the amount and variety of knowledge included in it.

The term cognitive dissonance refers to any discrepancy between cognitions (that is, between any knowledge, opinions or beliefs related to the environment, someone or someone's behavior). The appearance of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable, forces a person to try to reduce it and achieve consonance (correspondence of cognitions). In addition, in the presence of dissonance, a person actively avoids situations and information that could lead to its increase.

When talking about Leon Festinger’s theory of dissonance, it is customary to give the example of a smoker: a person smokes, but at the same time he knows that smoking is harmful. He experiences cognitive dissonance, which can be overcome in three ways:

1. Change your behavior, that is, quit smoking;

2. Change knowledge, that is, convince yourself that all discussions about the dangers of smoking at least exaggerate the danger, or are even completely unreliable;

3. Ignore information about the dangers of smoking.

In modern psychology, the theory of cognitive dissonance is often used to explain a person’s actions and actions in various social situations. Emotions are considered as the main motive for corresponding actions and deeds. The underlying cognitive factors are given a much greater role in determining human behavior than organic changes.

The dominant cognitivist orientation of modern psychological research has led to the fact that conscious assessments that a person gives to a situation are also considered as emotional factors. It is believed that such assessments directly influence the nature of the emotional experience.

Cognitive dissonance according to Festinger

2.1 General provisions

Cognition is interpreted by Festinger quite broadly: cognition is any knowledge, opinion or belief concerning the environment, oneself or one’s own behavior. Dissonance is experienced by the individual as a state of discomfort. She strives to get rid of it and restore internal cognitive harmony. And it is this desire that is a powerful motivating factor in human behavior and attitude towards the world.

A state of dissonance between cognitions X and Y occurs when cognition X does not imply Y. A state of consonance between X and Y, on the other hand, exists when X implies Y. A person strives for internal consistency, a state of consonance. For example, a person prone to obesity decided to go on a diet (cognition X), but cannot deny himself his favorite chocolate (cognition Y). A person trying to lose weight should not eat chocolate. There is dissonance. Its occurrence motivates a person to reduce, remove, and reduce dissonance. To do this, according to Festinger, a person has three main ways: change one of the cognitions (in this case, stop eating chocolate or stop dieting); reduce the significance of the cognitions included in the dissonant relationship (decide that being overweight is not such a big sin or that chocolate does not cause significant weight gain); add a new cognition (for example, that although chocolate increases weight, it has a beneficial effect on mental activity).

Cognitive dissonance motivates, requires its reduction, leads to a change in attitudes, and ultimately to a change in behavior. Let's consider the two most well-known effects associated with the emergence and removal of cognitive dissonance. One of them arises in a situation of behavior that contradicts a person’s evaluative attitude towards something (attitude). If a person voluntarily (without coercion) agrees to do something that is somewhat inconsistent with his beliefs, opinion, and if this behavior does not have sufficient external justification (say, reward), then in the future beliefs and opinions change towards greater compliance with the behavior. If, for example, a person agreed to behavior that is somewhat contrary to his moral guidelines, then the consequence of this will be dissonance between knowledge about behavior and moral guidelines, and in the future the latter will change in the direction of lowering morality.

Another well-studied effect found in cognitive dissonance research is dissonance after a difficult decision. A difficult decision is the case when the alternative options from which a choice must be made are close in attractiveness. In such cases, as a rule, after making a decision, after the choice is made, a person experiences cognitive dissonance, which is the result of the following contradictions: on the one hand, there are negative features in the chosen option, and on the other hand, there is something positive in the rejected option . What is accepted is partly bad, but it is accepted. What is rejected is partly good, but it is rejected.

Experimental studies of the consequences of a difficult decision have shown that after making such a decision (over time), the subjective attractiveness of the chosen option increases and the subjective attractiveness of the rejected one decreases. A person, thus, gets rid of cognitive dissonance: he convinces himself that what he chose is not just slightly better than the rejected one, but much better; he, as it were, expands alternative options: the chosen one pulls up the attractiveness scale, the rejected one pulls down . Based on this, we can assume that difficult decisions increase the likelihood of behavior consistent with the chosen option. For example, if a person was tormented for a long time by choosing between cars “A” and “B”, and in the end preferred “B”, then in the future the probability of choosing cars of type “B” will be higher than before the purchase, since the relative attractiveness of the latter will increase.

An experimental study by one of Festinger's students - Brehm showed that after making a difficult decision, the subjective attractiveness of the chosen option increases and the subjective attractiveness of the rejected option decreases. The experiment was structured as follows. The subjects (women) were asked to rate the attractiveness of various household items such as a stopwatch, radio, table lamp, etc. After this, the control group was given one of the items as a gift. The first experimental group (difficult decision group) was given a choice between objects that were similar in attractiveness; the second (easy decision group) was given the opportunity to choose an object from two that differed greatly in attractiveness. Subjects in all three groups were then asked to rate the objects again based on their attractiveness. The results showed that subjects in the experimental groups (those who had the right to choose) changed their assessments of the attractiveness of the objects that were given to them to choose from: compared to the initial assessments, the rejected item was perceived as relatively less attractive, and the chosen item was perceived as more attractive. In other words, the attractiveness of the rejected option has decreased, while the attractiveness of the chosen one has increased. Moreover, the change in attractiveness ratings was more significant in the case of a difficult decision.

Festinger explains the described fact as follows. After making a difficult decision, a person experiences emotional discomfort, which is caused by the fact that, on the one hand, the chosen option has negative features, and on the other hand, the rejected option has something positive: what was accepted is partly bad, but it is accepted; what is rejected is partially good, but it is rejected. In an effort to get rid of the experienced contradiction, a person convinces himself that what he chose is not just slightly better than the rejected one, but much better; he, as it were, expands alternative options: the chosen one pulls up the scale of attractiveness, the rejected one down. The consequence of this is changes in value judgments regarding the attractiveness of alternative behavior options.

Dissonance and consonance

On August 27, 1957, Leon Festinger's book, The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, was published.

Suffice it to say that the concept of a humanist leader is purely speculative, and the theory of cognitive dissonance is built on experimental data and has been repeatedly confirmed by them. Here, however, one suspicion arises: it seems that the domestic reader loves reasoning more than experiments. At least, a quick survey of several dozen young colleagues showed that almost everyone is familiar with Maslow’s concept, at least in its abstract presentation, while few have read Festinger, and many have not even heard of him to this day. Turning over the pages of the historical and psychological calendar at the end of summer, we will try to fill this gap at least partially.

A student of Levin, Festinger in his research relied on the principle of balance, using it in the analysis of human perception of the world. He himself begins the presentation of his theory with the following reasoning: it has been noticed that people strive for some consistency as a desired internal state. If a contradiction arises between what a person knows and what he does, then he seeks to somehow explain this contradiction and, most likely, present it as non-contradiction in order to again achieve a state of internal cognitive consistency.

Next, Festinger suggests replacing the term “contradiction” with “dissonance” and “coherence” with “consonance”, since this pair of terms seems more neutral to him, and now formulate the main provisions of the theory. It can be stated in three main points:

a) dissonance may arise between cognitive elements;

b) the existence of dissonance causes a desire to reduce it or prevent its growth;

c) the manifestation of this desire includes: either a change in behavior, or a change in knowledge, or a cautious, selective attitude to new information.

As an illustration, the now familiar example of a smoker is given: a person smokes, but at the same time knows that smoking is harmful; he experiences dissonance, from which there are three ways to get out:

a) change behavior, that is, quit smoking;

b) change knowledge, in this case - convince yourself that all discussions about the dangers of smoking at least exaggerate the danger, and are even completely unreliable;

c) carefully perceive new information about the dangers of smoking, that is, simply ignore it.