Persian culture in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Iran in the second half of the 19th century

Iran at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century turned into a semi-colony of world capitalist states. Despotism and colonial oppression further complicated the condition of the people. People's discontent has increased in the country.

Iranian despotic power relied on feudal-bureaucratic layers, especially regional authorities and families of khans. The land was owned by owners who exploited the peasants. Peasants, like artisans and small traders living in cities, were also drawn into the networks of moneylenders.

Iranian landowners, traders and moneylenders demanded a limitation of the Shah's power, the inviolability of their property, an end to the arbitrariness of governors and khans, and equalization of the rights of Iranian investors with foreign investors.

England was in first place in terms of investment in Iran. In 1872, concessions were obtained for the use of Iranian oil mines and for the construction of cobblestone roads and railways. In 1889, the English monopolist Reuters achieved the opening of the Shah Bank in Iran. As agreed, the bank received the right to issue paper money and free use of the country's mineral resources. On the eve of the First World War, Iran owed England £9.6 million.

Russia also participated in the enslavement of Iran. On the eve of the First World War, Iran's debt to Russia amounted to 164 million rubles. Iran's economic dependence has also increased its political dependence. The influence of the Russians in the Shah's palace was especially strong. The British chose a different path. They set the Bakhtiyar tribes of the Persian region and the khans of Khuzistan against the center, the Shah's power.

Iranian revolution

Internal social contradictions, external economic and political pressure caused the start of the revolutionary movement in Iran in 1905. The population of the country demanded the expulsion from the territory of the country of all Russian-English investors who dominate all industrial sectors.

There was a general strike in the country. The Shah's government brutally dealt with the strikers. It started popular movement. The people adopted the tactics of passive opposition, sitting peacefully in mosques and cemeteries. This was called best, and no punishment could be applied to those enjoying the best (right of asylum). Demonstrators came out demanding a limitation of the power of the Shah, the destruction of the rule of foreign capitalists (to form a “house of justice”, to expel “evil” officials).
The Shah sent armed forces to suppress the popular movement, but the troops refused to shoot at the people. As a result, on August 5, 1906, the Shah was forced to issue a decree on the adoption of a constitution, which was not implemented. The people rose up again. As a result, the first parliament, the Majlis, was formed in Tabriz for the first time in the history of Iran. The Majlis was influenced by Iranian social democrats. On September 9, under pressure from the people, the king issued a decree on holding elections to the Majlis. Kojars (that is, those belonging to the Shah's family), priests, traders, landowners and peasants, artisans - a total of 6 social strata - received the right to participate in elections.
In 1906, elections to the Majlis were held. Shah Muzaffariddin approved the first part of the constitution. According to it, the Shah was given the rights to approve all laws, adopt the budget, and control its use. The Majlis had the right to enter into economic agreements with foreigners.

Muzaffariddin died in 1907. Instead of him, Muhammad Alishah, a supporter of the despotic system and an opponent of innovation, sat on the throne. He planned a fight against revolutionary change. The new Shah was a categorical opponent of the Majlis, but the growth of the revolutionary movement forced him to maintain constitutional order in Iran. Thus ended the first stage of the Iranian revolution of 1905-1907.

Second stage of the revolution

The years 1907-1911 are called the second stage of the Iranian revolution. The revolutionary movement was now turned against the colonialists. The urban poor also came out with their demands.

The Mujahideen organization had a particularly great influence. They came out with demands such as universal suffrage with secret ballot, the creation of societies, respect for individual rights, confiscation of the Shah's lands, limiting working hours to 8 hours, the introduction of free compulsory education, etc.

Under the influence of the democratic movement, the tsar reduced the payment of benefits to aristocratic families, abolished the titles inherent in feudal times, and also issued decrees against bribery and corruption. The Shah agreed to approve and sign the most important, democratic articles of the constitution. Of particular importance were such articles as the equality of all before the law, the inviolability of person and property, the creation of civil societies, the holding of meetings, the secular court (along with the religious court), the separation of legislative and executive bodies, etc.

At the same time, the Shah was given greater rights. For example, the Shah was a person free from obligations, had the right to declare war as Commander-in-Chief, conclude a truce, appoint and dismiss ministers. The regulations stipulated that the Shah take the oath of allegiance to the constitution and laws. Five respectable religious confessors (ulamo) were appointed to monitor the compliance of adopted laws with Sharia norms.

Anglo-Russian Convention

The Anglo-Russian colonialists did not remain indifferent to the revolutionary changes in Iran. They pursued a violent policy towards Iran. In 1907, the Anglo-Russian Convention was signed. According to the agreement, Iran was divided into three parts. It was established that Northern Iran would be in the zone of influence of Russia, Southern Iran - in the zone of influence of England. The middle part of Iran was declared a neutral zone. At the same time, in 1908, with the help of the British and Russians, the Shah carried out a counter-revolutionary coup d'etat. Russians Cossack troops fired cannons at the Majlis building. The Majlis was dissolved. The democratic press was banned.

After the collapse of the Majlis, the center of the revolutionary movement moved to Tabriz. Tsarist troops attacked Tabriz and blocked the city. Hunger began. The Tabriz uprising, cut off from the outside world, was defeated.

Politics of Great States in Iran

Although the Tabriz uprising fizzled out, the movement against the Shah did not stop. In 1909, Mohammad Alishah was overthrown from the throne in Tehran. Instead, his young son Ahmad was proclaimed Shah. The constitution was restored. To improve the country's economy, the government was forced to take out loans from foreign countries. For example, a loan was taken from England in the amount of 1 million 250 thousand pounds sterling. Internal counter-revolutionary forces, with the help of Russia and England, launched a counterattack on the revolutionary Majlis. In 1911, Russian troops took part in a counter-revolutionary coup d'etat. Thus, the Iranian revolution was suppressed.
The revolution of 1905-1911 in Iran became a great social event, a transitional stage from the feudal-monarchical system to a constitutional monarchy.

On the eve of the First World War, Iran's dependence on other states increased. In 1912, Iran was forced to recognize the 1907 Convention on the Zones of Influence of Russia and England. A loan in the amount of 14 million rubles was taken from Russia. Iran became dependent on the great states in the economic and political spheres.

Best (Persian, best) - the right of refuge in the territories of some sacred and inviolable places (mosques, tombs). Concession (Latin concessio - permission, assignment) is an agreement for the commissioning by government agencies of underground resources and surface facilities under certain conditions.
Concession (Latin concessio - permission, assignment) - an agreement for the commissioning by government agencies of underground resources and surface facilities under certain conditions

Schwartz E. Text of the report at the conference in Yerevan “Griboyedov Readings”. December 16-17, 2008 Published: “Griboyedov Readings”, Issue 1. Yerevan, "Lingua", 2009.

Iran at the crossroads of the interests of the great powers of the 19th century

The path to global peace

Today we live in a global world where all countries are closely connected with each other, no matter how different their cultures, religions, histories and ultimate goals may be. The path to this global world began in the 18th and 19th centuries, when the great European powers began their rapid expansion into different places globe. The 19th century brought an end to the world of isolated civilizations. The illusion that any of the world's civilizations is the center of the world - be it China, India, Persia or Japan - has ended.

Gradually isolated cultural and civilizational worlds were drawn in through the mediation Western countries, and also Russian Empire into planetary history, turning into humanity. Thus, Western empires can be seen as intermediaries between disparate cultural and civilizational worlds. Thanks to these no matter how selfish, predatory and aggressive empires of the 19th century, these worlds finally meet, recognize each other and begin to build what we today call the global world.

In addition, an important consequence of Western expansion was the emergence of “small” states in the spaces of Europe, Asia and Africa in the 20th century. Thus, the inclusion of the Georgian kingdoms and the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates, which were dependent on Persia, into the Europeanized Russian Empire led to the national revival and unification of Georgia and Armenia, their modernization and development along the European path. The collapse of the Russian, or, more precisely, its successor, the Soviet Empire, entailed the transformation of these “regions” into independent states and independent centers of influence in the modern world.

British and Russian Empires

The most extensive and technically equipped in the 19th century was the British Empire. At the zenith of its glory, which occurred in the mid-19th century, more than a quarter of all humanity lived within the borders of the British Empire and about a quarter of the globe's landmass was located. Britain, after the victorious Napoleonic wars for it, was the most economically and technologically advanced state in Europe (to some extent, the war with Napoleon played the same role for Britain that the Second World War played in the 20th century world war relative to the USA). Britain was the undisputed leader. However, it was still opposed by other empires, albeit smaller in power and vastness, but no less in ambition, and sometimes in regional influence, the most active and powerful of which was Russia.

Of course, Russia could not compete with Great Britain in terms of technology and political and economic development - in many respects, it was an archaic, by European standards, a completely medieval country. Not to mention serfdom, its technical capabilities were ridiculous: when the British fleet, consisting of iron steamships, approached Sevastopol in 1854, it was met by old-fashioned wooden sailing ships (which simply had to be sunk - the only way they could somehow resist the British flotilla). However, Russia was rapidly expanding its borders - its expansion to the east and south proceeded at an incredible pace: the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Chinese Far East - all these were acquisitions of the Russian Empire of the 19th century. Russia's ambitions, the level of its intellectual and cultural development, and the literacy of its politicians for a long time compensated for its technological lag and on many “platforms” made it an equal rival to Britain.

The Russian and British empires, moreover, were different in type. The Russian Empire, spreading in breadth, absorbed territories, making them part of its country. At the same time, the peoples who inhabited them were included in the composition of the Russian people - including the Russian elite. There was nothing like this in the British Empire. It was a typical colonial empire, which saw the acquired colonies primarily as a source of income for the mother country. Britain built railways, schools, universities in India and Africa - but other peoples did not become part of the English nation and, especially, the English elite.

Clash of interests of superpowers

It is not surprising that in the 19th century the spheres of geopolitical interests of Britain and Russia began to increasingly overlap - in fact, from the Balkans and the Black Sea to the Pacific Ocean. Somewhere, for example, in China, Britain was forced to endure Russia’s invasion, unable to fully resist it. Somewhere, like on the Black Sea, the clashes were armed and bloody, and Russia suffered defeat. And somewhere the conflicts took the form of mainly diplomatic wars - such was Persia. However, these diplomatic wars between the two superpowers in certain periods led to very real bloodshed, into which the British pushed the protected Persian people.

Location of modern Iran

Modern Iran is one of the two main contenders for leadership in the Middle East region (the other is Sunni Saudi Arabia), today an economically strong, technologically advanced and politically independent state. It is also the first Muslim state to introduce democratic institutions.

The Path to Modern Iran

But the path to modern Iran lies through the destruction of its isolation in the early 19th century. And the main “destroyers” were the Russian and British empires.

Interaction with the Western powers, regardless of whether it was friendly or confrontational, negative or positive for Persia in its immediate results, one way or another, gradually moved this country along the path of Europeanization.

In many ways, the fact that Iran simultaneously fell into the sphere of interests of two powerful empires, British and Russian, made it what it is today. The equally active desire of these empires to occupy a dominant position in Persia prevented the state from becoming a colony of one of them, allowing it to maintain independence and thus giving a serious political advantage in the 20th century over countries with a colonial past.

Reasons for the superpowers' interest in Persia

The reasons for Russia and Britain's interest in Persia were, of course, purely selfish. For Britain, Persia was, first of all, an important market for its Indian goods, which it brought from its richest colony. In addition, since the borders of the Russian Empire in the 19th century were increasingly beginning to move closer to the borders of the British Empire, or at least to the borders of its sphere of influence, it was important for the British to create a buffer zone, a “security belt” in the form of Persia, preventing direct penetration of Russia into the British colonies (which is why it was so important for Britain at the beginning of the 20th century to maintain its control over the province of Seistan). Over the years, concessions—the right to develop their own business (construction of banks, roads, tobacco trade, etc.)—are beginning to become increasingly important for Britain. Concessions for Britain were important both politically, as a form of control over the ruling elite and the country’s finances, and economically, since they brought great profits to the mother country.

Russia had little more idealistic interests in Persia. She was also interested in the Persian sales market and profits from concessions. But perhaps she was even more interested in expanding her influence in Asia and pushing the frontier of her empire south.

How it all started

Russia's arrival in Iran began, in fact, with Russia's arrival in the Caucasus and the inclusion of certain regions of Transcaucasia, mainly parts of Georgia, into Russia.

In 1801, Paul I signed a decree on the annexation of Kartli-Kakheti to the Russian Empire. In addition, at the beginning of 1804, the Ganja Khanate was conquered by Russia. Such a powerful expansion of Russia into the Caucasus could not leave the young and energetic Qajar dynasty indifferent. In 1804, Persia, seeking to regain its lost Caucasian possessions, invaded the Erivan Khanate.

But in order to begin military operations against powerful Russia, Iran needed the help of another great power, the British Empire, and a little later, at the height of the Russian-Persian War of 1804-1813. – and Napoleonic France. Thus begins the arrival of Europe and Russia in Persia - at that time backward and archaic - and the end of its isolation. So Persia gradually enters modern world and becomes part of world history.

Beginning of the confrontation

Clash with Russia in 1804-13. turned out to be almost a disaster for Persia - after a 10-year war, the extremely unfavorable Peace of Gulistan (1813) was signed, according to which Persia recognized eastern Georgia and most of Azerbaijan as part of the Russian Empire. Russia also received the exclusive right to maintain a navy in the Caspian Sea.

But after this, active British intervention begins under the guise of protecting Persian interests. The huge differences in the methods of action of Russia and England are immediately visible. While Russia preferred (at least at first) to assert its influence in the region by force of arms, the British acted with bribery and flattery. (There were, however, individual episodes of armed confrontation in the 19th century, such as the Anglo-Persian War for Afghanistan, after which Persia lost the right to control this territory).

For almost 13 years, the British have been pouring colossal funds into Persia. Ermolov recalls: “The British are making every possible effort to oppose all obstacles to our power in this country. The money they squander in the ministry and all those close to the Shah and his heir will not allow a sincere rapprochement between Persia and Russia. Never!!!" However, for Persia, foreign capital and familiarity with European technologies is a chance to begin its own modernization. The same Ermolov writes: “...the second son [of the Shah], Abbas Mirza, declared heir, assisted by the British, successfully introduces significant changes. Regular troops are established on a good basis. The artillery is in excellent order and is obviously multiplying. There is a foundry good plant and a weapons factory. Fortresses were established based on European models. The ores are extracted, and there is already copper, lead and iron in large quantities. It is intended to establish cloth factories and factories for refining sugar in order to avoid the oppressive monopoly of the East India Company."

Inspired by the British, in 1926 the Persians, mistakenly thinking that after the death of Alexander I, a struggle for the throne had begun in Russia, began a war with Russia for the return of the territories lost after the Peace of Gulistan. However, they are defeated again. An almost two-year campaign ultimately leads the country to complete defeat and the conclusion of the famous Turkmanchay Peace with Russia, thanks to which, among other things, the formation of Armenia in its more or less modern form begins.

After this agreement, Russia was finally established in Transcaucasia. It becomes obvious that the undivided dominance of the British in Persia, which seemed insurmountable in the period from 1813 to 1826, has come to an end. Britain has since been confronted by a strong and ambitious enemy with its own long-term interests in the region.

It was from this moment that real regional rivalry between the superpowers began - and the closer we got to the end of the 19th century, the more obvious was Russia's success in promoting its interests in Persia. The English diplomat Edward Eastwick noted that “after 1828, England was inclined to limit Persia to its de facto possessions, preventing its advance towards Afghanistan, Sistan, Mekran and Arabia and discouraging any other efforts to acquire new or restore lost territories " In any case, the warm and friendly relations that clearly prevailed in Anglo-Persian relations changed towards a gradual cooling after Turkmanchay.

Griboyedov

Speaking about Turkmanchay, it is impossible not to mention the name of A.S. Griboyedov, because in many ways the conditions of the Turkmanchay Peace were formulated by him. It was Griboedov who negotiated with Abbas-Mirza, crown prince Persia and the Persian commander-in-chief, and sought for Russia both the most advantageous borders and the payment of large indemnities by Persia. Largely thanks to Griboyedov’s persistence and skillful diplomacy, Russia managed to defend Echmiadzin and the Nakhichevan region, which Abbas-Mirza did not want to concede in any way. And it should be noted that an important point of the agreement was also the safe resettlement of Armenians from Iran to the territory of the Russian Empire.

The reasons for the death of Griboyedov, who was appointed ambassador to Persia by Nicholas I, are very complex. Here came the extreme irritation of the people after an unsuccessful and ruinous war, the excited state of religious fanatics after a long fast and before the onset of the holy Shiite month of Moharram, and the intrigues of the khans against the ruling Shah. The immediate pretext was that Griboyedov, in full accordance with the powers given to him by the Turkmanchay Treaty, hid in the embassy an Armenian eunuch who served in the Shah’s harem, and also allegedly forcibly (which was not true!) detained two wives of Alayar Khan of the non-Persian origin. These, in general, completely legal actions of the Russian ambassador, were perceived as an insult and outrage against the faith, customs of the country and interference in internal affairs.

It should be noted that there is serious evidence in favor of the fact that an important role in the defeat of the Russian mission was played by the intrigues of the British, who at that time used all means of behind-the-scenes struggle to oust the Russians from this region.

From the point of view of the future history of Iran, it is also worth noting that the murder of Griboyedov was the result of one of the first episodes of religious upsurge in response to the invasion of foreign powers. Going forward, religious radicalization will become increasingly important for Iran.

The West and Russia and the gradual modernization of Iran

So, since concessions became the main way the West and Russia influenced Iran and benefited from it in the second half of the 19th century, it was around them that the main struggle between Britain and Russia in Persia unfolded. In this struggle, Persia is assigned the unenviable role of a semi-colony, torn apart by greedy powers.

In some areas - the founding of the Shahinshah Bank, the opening of the Karun River for navigation - Britain was in the lead. In others - the construction of highways, the ban on the construction of railways, indirectly, the abolition of British tobacco concessions - Russia won.

However, towards the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, Great Britain began to increasingly “give up”.

Britain and its position also did not remain unchanged for several decades in the second half of the 19th century. During Gladstone's premiership, for example, Britain showed significantly less interest in controlling Iran than during the premierships of Disraeli or Salisbury.

And in general, British politicians were not at all unanimous regarding Britain’s behavior both on the world stage and within the country. In Britain during the 19th century, there were clear trends towards the humanization of both British society itself and the “humanization” of Britain’s behavior in the world. In addition, by the very end of the 19th century, a clear “fatigue” of Britain began to be felt - the difficult Anglo-Boer War was almost lost, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand gained actual independence. England at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries was increasingly less able to maintain expansionist pressure. And the USA and Germany are beginning to outstrip it in industry and technology - primacy is passing to other powers. The mood within England was already completely different during this period - the feeling of the end of history and the complete victory of Britain in it, which existed in the middle of the century, gives way to disappointment and bitterness. The British are slowly beginning to say goodbye to their greatness.

Therefore, it is not surprising that by the end of the 19th century Russia became virtually dominant in Persia.

Britain begins to lose the diplomatic war for Persia already during the memorable struggle for railway concessions. The end result of this struggle was that Russia obtained from Nasr-ed-din Shah a complete renunciation of the construction of railways, which begin to truly appear in the country only during the next dynasty (the construction of a small railway line by the Belgians does not count).

The British attempt in 1888 to seize a monopoly on the tobacco trade led to such unanimous popular opposition that the Shah was forced to cancel the tobacco concession and, thus, Britain was defeated here too.

Of course, the invasion of Russia and Britain into the life of Persia was beneficial at that time mainly to the great empires. The Persian elite got used to bribes (of colossal size) and inaction. A similar effect could be observed in the 19th century in China - where the collapse of the Chinese elite took place under the influence of corruption brought from outside. However, in the long term, Persia rather benefited from the active activities of foreigners on its territory, who greatly accelerated its development (except for the ill-fated ban on the construction of railways, which Russia insisted on), including politically.

Iran made a real technological breakthrough in the 19th century, and also modernized its army: before the second Russian-Persian War with the help of English instructors, and already at the end of the 19th century, under Nasr-ed-din Shah, Russian instructors helped the Persians organize the Cossacks frame. But even more important is the cultural and political modernization that is beginning in Iran, sandwiched between the powers fighting each other for it. Thus, the vizier Amir Kabir, who helped Nasr-ed-din Shah ascend the throne in 1848, carries out truly revolutionary reforms in the country, transforming the appearance of the country. One of the main achievements of this time was the construction of a modern type university, Dar ol Fonuna - by the way, the first European type of university not only in Persia, but throughout the Greater Middle East. Some Iranian students go to study in the UK and, returning to the country, become agents of European values. The first newspapers appear.

Political change of Iran

Alas, the progressive vizier soon (1952) fell victim to behind-the-scenes intrigues: he was first dismissed and then, on the orders of the Shah, killed. The murder of the simultaneously European-minded and patriotic-minded Amir Kabir throws Persia back and slows down the progress of its development.

Nevertheless, the West itself is gradually beginning to lean towards the idea of ​​the need for political modernization of Iran. So, in 1888, the British (Ambassador Wolf, in particular) forced the Shah to issue a proclamation protecting the rights and property of his subjects. And although the Shah did not in fact intend to comply with his own regulations - and the British were neither very able nor willing to force him to do so - this document nevertheless marks an important stage in the initial political evolution of Iran. (Thus, the Anglo-Saxon West was already beginning to get a taste for its messianic role of “spreading democracy and progress.” Later, this banner of fighters for democracy would be seized from Britain by the United States). By the way, unlike Britain, Russia never had any intentions regarding introducing democratic values ​​to Persia - on the contrary, it was more profitable for it to leave Persia to “stew in its own juice.” But, of course, when it came to English interests, the British quickly forgot about their “messiahism.”

In 1906, a revolution took place in Iran, inspired by the example of Russia in 1905, as a result of which the weak and sickly Mozaffer-ed-din Shah signed a decree establishing a constitutional order. But neither the British nor the Russians were satisfied with the new constitutional regime. Both of them began to actively oppose democratic reforms, since it was more convenient for them to have a controlled Shah and not have to deal with the Majlis.

But the mere fact that a strong opposition arose in the country, and Persia was able to change on its own political system, adopting its own constitution and establishing parliament is a huge indirect merit of the Russian and British empires. It was thanks to European education, communication with Western countries and Russia that the Persians acquired the necessary experience that allowed them to ultimately become a modern state.

Partition of Iran and religious radicalization

The first negotiations on the “legal” division of Persia into Russian (northern) and British (southern) spheres of influence begin in 1888. However, due to the dramatic struggle between the two powers, neither of which wanted to give up hope of seizing complete control of Persia, the actual division was pushed back until 1907.

In the 1890s, the world witnessed perhaps the most fierce rivalry between Britain and Russia in Persia: over the issue of cash loans, oil and pipelines, and of course, about Seistan, a strategically extremely important region of Persia for England. In the period between 1900 and 1907. Relations between the weakening, but therefore almost even more aggressive Britain and Russia are aggravated to the limit. Russia is increasing its pressure: now S.Yu. Witte dreams of incorporating Persia into the Russian Empire, like the Caucasus regions, and Russia actively worked to implement this plan in the early years of the 20th century. The British are panicking, fearing that in this way Russia will also penetrate their India. Popular dissatisfaction with Russia's actions is growing in the country. Such tension could not continue for too long: England and Russia, unable to withstand such intense struggle, come to a mutual agreement and, according to the agreement of August 31, 1907, divide Persia into spheres of influence, leaving the center of Persia formally neutral. In many ways, this was Britain’s retreat from direct struggle, a recognition of Russia’s strength and the impossibility of ousting it from the region. But Russia, thus, refused to extend its protectorate to the whole of Persia, limiting itself only to its northern part.

The constant pressure on the leadership of Iran from Russia and Britain, their interference in the internal affairs of the country, in essence, the “buying up” of the country, stimulates a new round of religious radicalization. The mullahs, with their nationalist sermons, again, as in the time of Griboyedov, become the instigators of popular unrest. Moreover, in 1902-1903. The British, to counteract the Russians on the issue of another Russian loan for Persia, are actively using mullahs - even to the extent of financing them. In general, in many ways it was the British who then formed the religious opposition, which would become so strong by 1979.

The Persians' fear of the Russians was great at that time - many feared that the harshness of the tsarist regime towards opposition forces within Russia would spread to their country. The collaboration of the British with the Russians was perceived as a betrayal. Oddly enough, it was the agreement on the division of spheres of influence that put an end to the history of trusting relations between Persia and Britain. It became obvious to the Persian people that the British had never had any interests in Persia other than purely selfish ones, and all their moralizing about democracy and progress was only lies and hypocrisy. “The image of a cynical nation, indifferent to the suffering of the rest of humanity, buying and selling entire nations, trading in opium, deliberately starving millions of its colonial subjects and secretly controlling the destinies of the world - this image will survive the collapse of British power in the Middle East, the independence of India and the transformation of the Britain into a minor power".

The end of the rivalry between Russia and Britain

The First World War and the revolution in Russia changed a lot. The British wanted to completely seize control of Iran, for which a treaty was drawn up between Iran and Britain in 1919 - but riots broke out in the country and the treaty never came into force. Then the coup of 1921-25, carried out with the support of the British, who hoped that the new Iranian leadership would help Britain maintain its position in Persia, brought to power the strong and authoritarian Riza Shah of the new Pahlavi dynasty. In essence, his reign finally drew a line under the old superpower rivalries of the 19th century. Iran has entered a new era - in order to, again withstanding the onslaught of the new hegemons of the world, turn into a strong theocratic state and claim the role of one of the poles of the global world. If over time the theocratic component in it weakens, then Iran's mission as a leader in Middle Eastern modernization and dialogue may become extremely important.

In fact, alas, the tsarist government, as is generally the case in Russia, allocated insignificant funds for the resettlement of Armenians - an average of 5 rubles per family.

After all, when King John signed the Magna Carta in 1215, he also did not have any liberties in mind - but the Charter became the document that was later appealed to for several hundred years as the fundamental law

However, it was difficult for the constitutional system to take root; there was strong opposition within the country and from without. Muhammad Ali Shah wanted to do away with parliamentarism altogether, but the revolutionaries removed him, installing his young son. In 1911, the Russians, due to the refusal of deputies to accept a resolution on the expulsion of the American Shuster, forced the dissolution of the Majlis. Then, during the First World War and the occupation of Iran by Allied troops, the Majlis ceased to exist altogether, as the deputies fled. The Pahlavi dynasty, which came to power with the assistance of the British in 1925, was also not distinguished by democracy, and the rule under the last shahs, while formally preserving the institutions of democracy, was very authoritarian.

Strategy Americans who supported the Taliban to counter the Russians, was very reminiscent of the strategy British at the beginning of the 20th century in Persia.

From the book “The Struggle for Influence in Persia” by Firuz Kazem-Zadeh.

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• The Ottoman Empire is the largest state in the Islamic world. Its core was Türkiye. The Sultan was considered the ruler of devout Muslims.

The Ottoman Empire remained a feudal state. Formally, the country maintained a military-feudal system. The land belonged to the state and was leased to the sultan's associates, who had to supply recruits to the army and pay taxes. But to the beginning XIX centuries it no longer worked, corruption flourished. Selim III carried out a number of moderate reforms: created a regular army, opened military schools, built fortresses on the borders. Created state gunpowder factories and manufactories.

The reforms caused discontent among the nobility and 1807 Selim III was overthrown and reforms were curtailed.

Selim III

Successor Selima III Sultan Mahmud II faced great difficulties. The Ottoman Empire could not resist the forces that were destroying it:

• the struggle of the Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula for independence;
• the policy of European powers to expand colonies at the expense of the Ottoman Empire;
• Russian attempts to establish control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits;
• the desire of vassal possessions in North Africa for independence.

IN 1826 year Mahmoud II abolished the Janissary army. The Janissaries refused to surrender their weapons and were defeated by troops loyal to him. But he did not have time to create a new army even in the war with Russia. 1828-1829 gg. The Ottoman Empire was defeated. Greece and Serbia received autonomy.

The beginning of the division of Turkish possessions

• IN 1830 In 1999, French troops invaded Algeria. As a result of the reforms they carried out, Algeria turned into a source of cheap agricultural products and a market for French goods.
• Another vassal of the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, under the leadership of Pasha Muhammad Ali and the help of French instructors and consultants, began a war against it. Syria and Lebanon were captured.
• IN 1833 At the initiative of England, a truce was concluded in 1839, but in 1839 military operations continued and the Turkish army was defeated.
• England, Russia, Prussia and Austria took the side of Turkey - Egypt was forced to retreat.

Türkiye and the Crimean War 1853-1856.

Subordination of the Turkish economy Western powers caused concern in Russia. IN 1853 year she started a war with Turkey.

The Turkish fleet was destroyed and Russian troops went on the offensive in Transcaucasia.

Not wanting Russia to gain strength, Western countries sided with Turkey. Russia was not ready for war with the coalition of England and France and 1856 admitted defeat. For this assistance in the war with Russia, the Ottoman Empire had to provide special privileges to English and French capital.

Reforms in Turkey in the middle XIX century.

IN 1834 year Mahmoud II abolished the military-feudal system. Flax lands began to be bought and sold. Centralized administrative control was introduced.

Under Sultan Abdulmecid, a secular education system and healthcare began to develop, and the inviolability of life and property was guaranteed, regardless of religion. The fight against corruption was carried out, a regular army was created on the basis of conscription.

These reforms, called policies tanzimat (streamlining) were not supported by the Muslim clergy.

The reforms did not ensure the development of domestic production.

Sultan Abdulmecid

Attempts at reform in the 1870s

The dominance of foreigners, the depletion of the state treasury, and the lag behind European countries in development caused discontent among some officers, officials and intellectuals.

IN 1865 The New Ottomans society arose in the country, advocating the introduction of a Constitution. IN 1876 They, with the support of some ministers, carried out a coup d'état. The Sultan ascended the throne

Abdul-Hamid II. He agreed to the adoption of the Constitution. Türkiye became a parliamentary republic.

Sultan

Abdul-Hamid II

Attempts at reform in the 1870s

1877 made peace. An independent Bulgaria arose in the Balkans. But at the Berlin Congress in the summer 1878 Turkey returned a number of lands lost during the war.

Attempts at reform in the 1870s

Defeat in the war allowed the Sultan to abolish the constitution and return to a despotic form of government.

IN 1879 The Ottoman Empire declared state bankruptcy.

IN 1881 year, the country's finances were transferred to the control of Western countries. Was created Office of the Ottoman Public Debt, which collected taxes, fees and duties from the population of the country. In response to stubborn resistance to this in the vassal possessions, France occupied Algeria, and England - Egypt.

Young Turk revolution in 1908-1909.

Politics of Abdul Hamid II restored heterogeneous forces against him - from the clergy to the officers. Most of the opposition leaders (called themselves Young Turks) lived in exile where in 1902 their congress took place this year.

Young Turks in 1908 They started an uprising in Macedonia. Under threat of capture of Istanbul Abdul-Hamid II restored the Constitution and assembled parliament. The majority in it was received by the Young Turks, who overthrew Abdu Hamid II and they elevated his brother to the throne.

The Young Turk revolution met with the support of the masses, but a dictatorial regime was established in the country. The main slogan of the Young Turks was Pan-Turkic winter - the unification of all Muslim peoples of Asia who speak Turkic languages.

Revolt of the Young Turks

• At the beginning XX century, Persia (Iran) was in the position of a semi-colony of England and Russia.
• The Shah's regime made any concessions to foreigners.
• Local artisans, peasants and merchants went bankrupt.

Revolution 1905-1911 in Iran

This situation caused the rise of the revolutionary movement.

1905 year - a wave of strikes and demonstrations in the country.

1906 year the Shah is forced to announce elections to the national parliament - Majlis .

The constitution developed by the Majlis turns Iran into a constitutional monarchy.

Revolution 1905-1911 in Iran

• But the revolution did not end. A struggle for a boycott of foreign goods has unfolded in the country.
• A movement has arisen mujahideen (Mujahideen) - fighters for the faith.
• They demanded that the laws comply with the norms Sharia - Islamic faith.
• England and Russia agreed to divide spheres of influence in Iran.
• IN 1908 year Majlis was dispersed.
• TO 1911 year the revolution was suppressed.

Shooting of parliament

Second half of the 19th century. became a period of active colonial expansion in Iran by European countries, primarily England and Russia. At the same time, the Qajar ruling group was more willing to satisfy the demands of foreign powers than the demands of its own people. As the main means of strengthening the enslavement of Iran, foreign capital used the receipt of various types of concessions from the Shah's government, as well as the provision of cash loans to Tehran.

During Crimean War, taking advantage of the fact that the British were busy besieging Sevastopol, Nasr ed-Din Shah decided to launch a campaign against Herat in order to prevent its capture by the Afghan emir Dost Mohammed. In October 1856, after a five-month siege, Herat was captured. In response, England declared war and occupied part of Iranian territory, including the island of Kharg, the cities of Bushehr, Mohammera (now Khorramshahr) and Ahwaz. According to the Treaty of Paris, signed in March 1857, the Shah recognized the independence of Herat, and in the event of disagreements between Iran, on the one hand, Herat and Afghanistan, on the other, he pledged to seek the mediation of London.

In 1862-1872. England obtained from the Shah's government the conclusion of three conventions, according to which it acquired the right to build land-based telegraph lines in Iran to ensure uninterrupted communication between London and India. These lines were a means of expanding British influence in Iran. The serving staff, consisting of Englishmen, enjoyed the right of extraterritoriality. The telegraph lines themselves, as well as mosques and foreign embassies, were subject to the privilege of best (a place of refuge inviolable for the authorities).

In 1872, the Shah granted the owner of the English telegraph agency, Baron Yu. Reiter, a concession for the monopoly exploitation of all industrial resources of Iran for a period of 70 years: the development of natural resources, the construction of irrigation structures, the construction of roads, etc. However, this kind of concession caused a wide wave of protests (Russian diplomacy also opposed it), and soon Nasr ed-Din Shah had to cancel it. As compensation, the Iranian government allowed Reiter in 1889 to organize the Imperial (Shahinshah) Bank of Persia, which received the right to issue banknotes, control the mint, accept government revenues and customs duties into its current account, and began to set the exchange rate for foreign currencies.

In 1888, the English citizen Lynch acquired a concession to organize navigation along the only navigable Karun River in Iran. In 1891, the British company Talbot took over the purchase, sale and processing of all Iranian tobacco, against which powerful protests began throughout the country, and the highest clergy even issued a special fatwa banning smoking. As a result, in 1892 the Shah was forced to cancel this concession. To pay off the penalty for the Talbot company, the Shahinshah Bank issued a loan of 500 thousand pounds to Nasr ed-Din Shah. Art. secured by southern Iranian customs, which became the first major foreign loan.

If the influence of England was predominant in the south of Iran, then in the north it belonged to Russia. In 1879, Russian citizen Lianozov received permission to exploit the fisheries of the Caspian Sea, including the Iranian rivers flowing into it. In 1889, the Shah's government issued a license to the Russian capitalist Polyakov to organize the Discount and Loan Bank of Persia, which subsequently opened branches and agencies in Tabriz, Rasht, Mashhad, Qazvin and other cities of the country. It received duties from Iran's northern customs. There was intense competition between the Shahinshahi and Accounting and Loan Banks. In 1890, Polyakov was allowed to establish the Persian Insurance and Transport Society, which built and took control of highways connecting the cities of Northern and Central Iran with the Russian border, as well as water communications along south coast Caspian Sea.

As for railways, under pressure from England and Tsarist Russia in 1890, the Iranian government undertook to refrain from building them.

Constantly in need of money, the ruling group of the state granted concessions, sometimes quite unexpected ones, to others for relatively small sums. European countries. In particular, the Belgians were given permission to set up gambling houses, produce and sell wines, the French were given permission to conduct archaeological excavations indefinitely and export half of the discovered ancient relics from Iran.

Since the 1870s, imports of foreign factory goods into Iran sharply increased, the competition of which undermined local crafts and hampered the creation of national industry. At the same time, the export of agricultural products and raw materials from the country, dictated by the requirements of the foreign market, increased. The country began to expand the area under cotton, tobacco and other industrial crops. Iran was turning into a raw materials appendage of the European powers.

Not only the economy, but also some areas came under the control of foreigners public administration. Created in 1879 under the leadership of Russian officers, the Cossack regiment, later deployed into a brigade, became the only combat-ready part of the Iranian army, which increased the dependence of the Shah’s regime on tsarist Russia. Along with the Russians, Austrian, German, Italian and French military instructors appeared in Iran. Foreigners also began to infiltrate the central administrative apparatus - in the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs the decisive voice belonged to the British, and in 1898 the Belgian Nauss was appointed head of the customs business. In the northern regions and in the capital, persons pleasing to the Russian ambassador were appointed to responsible positions. The southern regions were ruled by the British, who, regardless of the opinion of the Shah's government, entered into agreements with local khans, subsidized them and supplied them with weapons.

The strengthening of the position of foreign capital also entailed changes in the class structure of society. As a result of the increasing dependence of agriculture on the demands of the external market, representatives of the merchants, officials and clergy began to seize the plots of small landowners and buy up the lands of the feudal aristocracy and the Shah's family, thereby forming a layer of landowners of a new type. The development of commodity-money relations and the increasing share of taxes levied in money led to usurious enslavement of the peasants. Often the same landowners acted as moneylenders.

In the second half of the 19th century. attempts to transition in cities from handicraft and manufacturing production to factory production, the organization of national joint-stock companies and societies where hired labor would be used, due to the lack of appropriate entrepreneurial experience, properly trained technical personnel, as well as a shortage of capital, as a rule, ended failure. Craftsmen and hired workers who were losing their jobs and livelihoods, together with the impoverished peasants, replenished the army of the hungry and tens of thousands went to work in Russia - in Transcaucasia and the Transcaspian region.

Committed in 1873, 1878 and 1889. trips to Russia and Europe, Nasr ed-Din Shah introduced certain innovations into the sphere of public administration: he established the ministries of internal affairs, post and telegraph, education, justice, founded a number of secular schools for the sons of the feudal nobility, and carried out some Europeanization of the clothes of the courtiers. However, these measures were superficial and did not affect the foundations of the existing system. The attempt to limit the judicial power of the clergy brought many authoritative and influential Shiite theologians against the Shah.

In 1893-1894. Mass “hunger riots” took place in Isfahan, Mashhad, Shiraz and other cities. The assassination of Nasr ed-Din Shah by pan-Islamist Reza Kermani on May 1, 1896, in the wake of growing popular discontent, and the rise to power of his son Mozaffar ed-Din Shah did not change the situation. Having dismissed several ministers and governors, the new Shah and his entourage continued to adhere to the reactionary course of their father. Under him, the influence of foreigners in Iran became even stronger, popular discontent continued to grow, and unrest multiplied and became increasingly widespread.

Historians of the Soviet school distinguished three periods of revolution:

the first period - from December 1905 to January 1907 (before the adoption of the constitution);

the second period - from January 1907 to November 1911 (disengagement of forces, political leapfrog, attempts at counter-revolutionary coups);

third period - from November to December 1911 (armed intervention of England and Russia in the internal affairs of Iran, suppression of the revolution).

1. It is no coincidence that the first period of the revolution was called constitutional, because at that time the main thing was the struggle for the adoption of a constitution and the convening of parliament. The immediate cause of the revolution was the events in Tehran at the end of 1905. They were preceded by a long internal crisis that covered all aspects of the life of Iranian society. Until the beginning of the 20th century. The government, at the cost of some concessions and political maneuvers, managed to smooth out these contradictions. But by the beginning of the 20th century, the fluids of revolution reached Shiite Iran. In December 1905, anti-government protests began in Tehran under the slogan of the resignation of the country's Prime Minister Ain od Doule. According to Russian historians and diplomats of the early 20th century, Doule was a real scoundrel who took bribes everywhere and from everyone. It was only “thanks to” the first minister that the revolution in Iran began in 1905, and not 10-100 years later.

In addition to Doule's resignation, the opposition demanded the expulsion of foreigners from the administrative apparatus, the introduction of a constitution and the convening of parliament (Majlis). The immediate cause of the escalation of the conflict was the events in the capital Tehran. By order of the governor, 17 merchants were captured and beaten, among whom were seids (descendants of the Prophet). They did not comply with government orders to reduce sugar prices. As a sign of protest, in December 1905, all bazaars, shops, and workshops were closed. Part of the clergy and merchants sat in best in the suburbs of the capital. Thus began the revolution of 1905-1911. In modern historiography, the events of 1905-1911 are often discussed. is called the constitutional movement, and this is justified, since in the initial period all opposition groups acted as a united front, demanding the adoption of a constitution and the convening of parliament.

The main events took place in Tehran, Isfahan, and Tabriz. In the summer of 1906, the reform movement entered its final stage. The July strike forced the Shah to dismiss the first minister, Doule, and soon the government issued a decree introducing a constitution. In the fall of 1906, the regulations on elections to the Majlis were published. The elections were two-stage, held according to the curial system, with a high property qualification. Representatives of six “estates” sat in the first parliament: princes and Qajars, clergy, landed aristocracy, merchants, “landowners and farmers,” and artisans.

It is not difficult to calculate that 38% (the first and fourth lines of the second column) were representatives of the clergy and landowners. Slightly less - 37% (second line, second column) of the Majlis are representatives of the middle and small merchants. However, together with artisans and small entrepreneurs there were 46% of them, that is, an absolute majority in parliament.

Parliament immediately began to work on finalizing the constitution. In December, Shah Mozaffar ad-Din approved the draft constitution and died 8 days later. In January 1907, his son, an ardent reactionary and opponent of state liberalization, Mohammad Ali Shah, ascended the throne. Constitution of 1906-1907 struck Western observers with its liberal spirit. Perhaps this was due to the “strange alliance” that took shape at the first stage of the revolution. This union included representatives of the spiritual and secular intelligentsia. They united to solve two important problems: limiting the power of the Shah and opposing Anglo-Russian penetration into Iran. It is noteworthy that the revolutionary elite relied on the traditional monarchism of the people (the Shah is good, but the advisers are bad). Already in 1907, this strange alliance fell apart, the clergy came to an agreement with Mohammad Ali Shah.

At the second stage of the revolution in 1907, Mohammad Ali Shah, under pressure from the Majlis, signed the “Additions to the Basic Law,” that is, the development of the constitution was completed. The “Additions” significantly expanded the powers of the clergy. A special “commission of five” was created, which included the most prominent Shiite leaders. At the same time, the “Additions” did not cancel the liberal ideas of the “Basic Law”. Democratic freedoms were proclaimed in the country, the creation of provincial and regional authorities was authorized, the inviolability of personality, private property, home, freedom of speech, press, etc. were declared. True, all freedoms were to be controlled by the “commission of five”. Religious leaders, members of the “commission of five,” were given the right to decide whether a particular law complied with the spirit of Islam or not176.

Thus, the model of constitutional monarchy was accepted by the ulema only if it preserved, or better yet strengthened, the power of the clergy.

During the second period of the revolution, a disengagement of forces occurred, and the struggle of various political groups for power began. Each group declared itself a champion of freedom and democracy and sought to speak on behalf of the entire people. Democracy and freedom are politically charged words.

Probably, freedom as permissiveness and “refined” freedom of the intelligentsia are possible in any country. The Shiite clergy and the “Europeanized” liberals had different understandings of the tasks of the revolution, but the adoption of the constitution briefly reconciled them.

Revolutionary events in Iran are interpreted by foreign powers as signs of weakening central power. England and Russia, taking advantage of the political situation, signed an agreement on August 31, 1907 on the division of spheres of influence in Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet. This agreement completed the formation of the military-political alliance of the Entente. According to the agreements, the southeastern regions of Iran became the sphere of influence of England, and the northern regions of the country, including Iranian Azerbaijan, became the sphere of influence of Russia. The Mejlis refused to ratify the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907. The situation in the country became increasingly tense. In December 1907, the Shah brought troops loyal to him to the capital. In June 1908, with the help of the Cossack brigade of Colonel Lyakhov, Mohammad Ali Shah carried out the first counter-revolutionary coup. The Mejlis was dispersed, democratic newspapers were closed, political repressions began, etc. Left-wing deputies of the Majlis and some leaders of the Enjomen were thrown into prison or executed.

Under these conditions, the center of the movement moved to Iranian Azerbaijan, to the city of Tabriz. The high point of the revolution was the Tabriz uprising of 1908-1909, sometimes called the “civil war.” The uprising was led by Sattar Khan and Bagir Khan. But the prefix khan is an honorary title, because Sattar Khan came from a peasant background, Bagir Khan was a craftsman before the revolution. The activities of Sattar Khan were covered in legend. In the eyes of his compatriots, he was a “commander, leader of the people,” a true Luti. Luti, in the minds of ordinary Iranians, is, first of all, a strongman, a hero who commands respect for his physical strength. In cities, lutis “held neighborhoods” and were reliable protection for the lives and property of their inhabitants. In colloquial language, Luti means “a generous and noble person”177. Sattar Khan and Bagir Khan organized feday detachments and fought for the restoration of the constitution and parliament.

Transcaucasian Bolsheviks led by S. Ordzhonikidze and not only them took part in the Tabriz uprising. In addition to the Bolsheviks, Armenian Dashnaks, Georgian Mensheviks and others fought on the side of the Iranian revolution. According to G.V. Shitov, Sattar Khan’s life guard consisted of “250 Dagestan thugs, without any party affiliation”178. In 1909, the Shah's troops, with the help of the khans of the nomadic tribes, managed to besiege Tabriz. The blockade ring was shrinking, there was no fresh water, food. However, the rebels did not give up. Russia decides to help the Shah and begins military operations against Tabriz. The inconsistency of the punitive forces had the opposite consequences for the rebellious city. Russian troops defeated Tabriz, but also broke the blockade ring. Hungry, exhausted, but alive, the rebels left Tabriz for Rasht, and from there, together with the Gilan and Bakhtiyar fedai, to the capital of Iran, Tehran. S. Ordzhonikidze took part in this campaign. The city was taken on July 13, 1909. The Shah was forced to sit down in the Russian diplomatic mission. However, this did not help him retain the throne. Mohammad Ali Shah was deposed. In August, the Shah with the remains of the Shah's treasury arrived in the city of Odessa, where he was met with appropriate honors. His place was taken by his young son Ahmed. The Mejlis was restored, liberals came to power. In 1909, on the basis of Mujahideen organizations, the Democratic Party was created, which stood on the principles of bourgeois nationalism.

The head of the government was Sepahdar from Gilan. The elections to the second Majlis were even less democratic, with only 4% of the Iranian population participating. In November 1909, the second Majlis set a course for “suppressing popular riots.” In 1910, government troops defeated the Feday troops. The Mejlis supported the government in its assessment of the economic situation in the country. In order to overcome the financial crisis, it was decided to invite American advisers to Iran. In May 1911, a financial mission led by Morgan Shuster arrived in Iran; he was associated with the Standard Oil oil company. Russia and England did not want to strengthen American influence in Iran. With the help of Russia, the Shah makes a second attempt to regain power. Taking advantage of the political leapfrog, in July 1911, Mohammad Ali Shah from Russia across the Caspian Sea began a campaign against Tehran. The news of the appearance of the former Shah caused a new explosion of popular indignation, rallies and demonstrations began. In the fall, the Shah's troops were defeated by government troops with the support of the fedai. The Shah fled the country again.

At the third stage of the revolution, open Anglo-Russian intervention in Iran began. The reason for sending Russian troops was a conflict related to Shuster’s confiscation of the property of one of the brothers of the deposed Shah. The property was pledged to the Russian Accounting and Loan Bank. In November 1911, Russia, with the support of England, presented Iran with an ultimatum demanding Shuster resign. It should be noted that the economic activities of the American adviser began to produce the first positive results. The ultimatum caused indignation and protest of all Iranian patriots. A boycott of foreign goods began, and the Tehran bazaar went on strike. The Majlis decided to reject the ultimatum.

The rejection of the ultimatum served as the reason for the military demarche of the occupying allies. The revolution was suppressed. The Majlis ceased to exist. Formally, the country retained its constitution, but its implementation was suspended.

The suppression of the revolution strengthened the position of England and Russia in Iran. In February 1912, the Iranian government, in which not a trace of liberals remained, recognized the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 on the division of Iran into spheres of influence. Russian and British troops remained on the territory of the country. The most powerful weapon of colonial policy in Iran was the activities of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company.

Revolution 1905-1911 has become an important milestone in political history Iran. Its rapid development and scale of events were unpredictable. Iranian revolution led to the adoption of a fairly democratic constitution. But its “Western version” was “softened” by the fact that the guarantors of the constitution were Muslim theologians, with their strict orientation towards Sharia law. Although the movement swept the entire country, after 1907 there was a disengagement of forces, and some liberals left the camp of the revolution. The popular movement also did not have clear goals. The theory of exporting revolution in this region has clearly failed.

The revolution led to a decline in the prestige of the central government, and separatist sentiments noticeably strengthened in the country. The separatism of the khans of the nomadic tribes posed a serious danger. During the revolution, some of the khans supported the Shah. The Bakhtiars and Kurds united with the constitutional forces. But these alliances were not strong: tribal leaders often changed their political orientation and thought only about plundering other people's territories. Foreign intervention contributed to the suppression of the revolutionary movement. Since in 1911-1913. The troops of Russia and England were not evacuated from the country; military operations took place on the territory of neutral Iran during the First World War between the armies of the Entente and Triple Alliance countries.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Various movements appeared in Iran directed against the Shah's rule. Religious sections of the population preached the ideas of pan-Islamism and the unification of Muslims under the rule of a strong caliph. At the same time, various secret organizations began to be created. In 1905, the anti-government society “Enjumene Mahfi” (“Secret Enju-Man”) was formed.

At the beginning of the 20th century. The social situation inside Iran has sharply deteriorated. Strikes and popular uprisings against imperialist oppression became more frequent. In December 1905, a mass demonstration and sit-in took place in Tehran in the mosque of Shah Abdul Azim - best (“sit on best” - visiting mosques, mazars, graves to conduct sit-ins; this type of resistance has been preserved in Iran since ancient times) . The protesters demanded the departure of foreign citizens from government service and the construction of a “fair state” that would address people’s problems and needs. Frightened by popular pressure, the Shah agreed to satisfy the demands of the protesters. After the dissolution of the rebels, the Shah broke his promise and began brutal reprisals. In response to this, a new wave of protests began in June-July 1906. The rebels again demanded that the Shah expel foreigners from government and adopt a new constitution. On October 7, 1906, the first Majlis (lower house of parliament) was convened in Tehran. This was the first victory of the revolution. However, some time after the coronation, the new Shah of Iran, Mohammed Ali, carried out reprisals against the revolutionaries. In 1907, the second stage of the revolution began. Democratic groups continued to fight.

In 1908--1909 The city of Tabriz became a major center of the revolution. Unable to cope with the rebels, the Shah asked for help from foreigners. With the help of the English and Russian armies, the uprising in Tabriz was suppressed.

Revolutionary unrest in Iran continued until 1911. As a result of the uprising, the power of the Shah weakened and his authority fell. The Shah's government admitted its insolvency and dependence on foreign military assistance. With the help of troops of foreign powers, the revolution in Iran 1905-1911. was brutally suppressed.

The defeat of the revolution paved the way for Iran to become a semi-colony of foreign powers. The Shah's government was forced to accept any conditions set by foreigners. In 1911-1914. Iran received a loan from England in the amount of 2 million pounds sterling, from Russia - 14 million rubles. The British received the right to develop oil deposits in Iran. iran revolution telegraph semi-colonial

So, at the beginning of the twentieth century. Iran was a backward semi-colonial country.

1. Droughts, crop failures, economic crisis, arbitrariness of officials and the hardships of the war with the Manchus (1618-1644) forced the peasants to take up arms. In 1628, in the province of Shaanxi, scattered semi-robber bands began to create rebel detachments and elect leaders. From that moment on, a peasant war began in northeastern China, which lasted almost 19 years (1628-1647). Initially, the rebel troops were united, but after the capture of Fengyang, a split occurred between the rebel leaders Gao Yingxiang and Zhang Xianzhong (1606-1647), after which the latter led his army to the Yangtze Valley. Gao Yingxiang and other leaders led their troops west to Shaanxi, where they were defeated after the final break with the army of Zhang Xianzhong. After the execution of Gao Yingxiang, Li Zicheng was elected leader of the “Chuan troops”.

Meanwhile, Zhang Xianzhong's bandit-rebel armies dominated Huguang (present-day Hunan and Hubei) and Sichuan, and in 1643 he proclaimed himself the “King of the Great West” (Dasi-Wang) in Chengdu.

In the 1640s, the peasants were no longer intimidated by a weakened army that suffered defeat after defeat. The regular troops were caught in a pincer movement between the Manchu troops in the north and the rebel provinces, and unrest and desertion increased. The army, deprived of money and food, was defeated by Li Zicheng, who by this time had appropriated the title “Prince of Shun”. The capital was left practically without a fight (the siege lasted only two days). The traitors opened the gates for Lee's troops, and they were able to enter without hindrance. In April 1644, Beijing submitted to the rebels; The last Ming emperor, Chongzhen (Zhu Yujian), committed suicide by hanging himself from a tree in the imperial garden at the foot of Mount Jingshan. The last eunuch loyal to him also hanged himself next to the emperor. For their part, the Manchus took advantage of the fact that General Wu Sangui (1612-1678) allowed them to pass through the Shanghai outposts without hindrance. According to Chinese chronicles, the military leader was going to compromise with Li Zicheng, but the news received from his father that the new ruler was looking for his favorite concubine in Sangui's house forced the commander to change his decision - after weighing all the pros and cons , he decided to take the side of the conquerors. The Manchu army under the leadership of Prince Dorgon (1612-1650), uniting with the troops of Wu Sangui, defeated the rebels at Shanhaiguan and then approached the capital. On June 4, Prince Shun, leaving the capital, retreated in confusion. On June 6, the Manchus, together with General Wu, occupied the city and proclaimed the young Aisinghioro Fulin emperor. The rebel army suffered another defeat from the Manchu army at Xian and was forced to retreat along the Han River all the way to Wuhan, then along the northern border of Jiangxi province. Here Li Zicheng died in the summer of 1645, becoming the first and only emperor of the Shun Dynasty. Sources differ in their assessment of the circumstances of his death: according to one report, he committed suicide; according to another, he was beaten to death by peasants from whom he tried to steal food. Soon, Qing troops arrived in Sichuan. Zhang Xianzhong left Chengdu and tried to use scorched earth tactics, but in January 1647 he died in one of the battles. Foci of resistance to the Manchus, where the descendants of the Ming emperors still ruled, in particular, the kingdom of Zheng Chenggong in Formosa (Taiwan) existed for a long time. Despite the loss of the capital and the death of the emperor, China (i.e. the Ming Empire) was still not defeated. Nanjing, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanxi and Yunnan still remained loyal to the overthrown dynasty. However, several princes claimed the vacated throne at once and their forces were fragmented. One by one, these last centers of resistance submitted to the Qing power, and in 1662, with the death of Zhu Youlan, the Yongli Emperor, the last hope for a Ming restoration disappeared.

Slide 1

The Ottoman Empire and Persia in the 19th - early 20th centuries.

Slide 2

Crisis of the Ottoman Empire. "Eastern Question" in international politics. Revolution 1905-1911 in Iran.
Plan

Slide 3

Slide 4

Land, the property of the Sultan, was provided for the use of close associates and military leaders. Administrative and judicial positions were sold. Slow development of industry, handicraft production. Financial system crisis. The army is poorly armed, the Janissaries lack fighting qualities.
Crisis of the Ottoman Empire.

Slide 5

Eastern question
"Eastern Question" in international politics.
The struggle of the Orthodox Slavic Peoples for independence
Threat of seizure of Ottoman lands by colonialists
The struggle for control of the Black Sea straits
The desire for independence of the Ottoman possessions in North Africa

Slide 6

1829 - recognition of the autonomy of Greece and Serbia. 1859 - separation of Moldavia and Wallachia. 1858 - uprising in Montenegro 1878 - recognition of Bulgarian autonomy
The struggle of the Orthodox Slavic Peoples for independence

Slide 7

1774 - Türkiye recognized Russia's right of merchant shipping. 1779.1803 - Russia received the right of passage of military ships through the straits. 1856 - according to the Treaty of Paris, the Black Sea was declared neutral.

The struggle for control of the Black Sea straits

Slide 8

Ports, customs, railways, finances were under the control of Germany, France, and Great Britain.
Threat of seizure of Ottoman lands by colonialists

Slide 9

1830 - invasion of French troops in Algeria. 1831-1833, 1839-1840 - wars between Turkey and Egypt 1881 - occupation of Tunisia by France 1882 - seizure of Egypt by England 1911-1912 - Italo-Turkish war. Türkiye ceded Tripolitania and Cyrenaica.
The desire for independence of the Ottoman possessions in North Africa

Slide 10

Early XIX V. reforms of Selim III Strengthening the army
Mid-19th century Tanzimat politics. Overcoming military and economic backwardness.
An attempt at reform by the “new Ottomans” in the 1870s. Suspension of further enslavement of the country.
Reforms in Turkey and the Young Turk Revolution of 1908-1909.

Slide 11

Periods, dates Goals Contents Results
Beginning of the 19th century reforms of Selim III Strengthening the army -Establishing a corps of regular troops according to the European model. -Invitation to the country of European designers -Creation of state gunpowder factories. The reforms caused discontent among the nobility, uprisings began, and Selim III was overthrown.
Mid-19th century Tanzimat politics. Overcoming military and economic backwardness. -Abolition of the military-feudal system, permission to buy and sell land. Reorganization of central management. Introduction of a secular education and healthcare system. Creation of a regular army based on conscription. They caused discontent among the Muslim clergy and the Turkish nobility and did not have the support of the population of the empire.
An attempt at reform by the “new Ottomans” in the 1870s. Suspension of further enslavement of the country. 1876 ​​- adoption of the constitution. After the defeat in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. The Sultan abolished the constitution and reforms were stopped.
Reforms in Turkey and the Young Turk Revolution of 1908-1909.