Linguistic norm is the role of language functioning. Language norm, its role in the formation and functioning of a literary language

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Language norm, its role in the formation and functioning of a literary language

literary language grammatical stylistic

Language norm (literary norm)- these are the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of a literary language, that is, the rules of pronunciation, word usage, the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means accepted in social linguistic practice. This is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

The norm is mandatory both for oral and for writing and covers all aspects of the language. There are norms: orthoepic (pronunciation), orthographic (writing), word-formation, lexical, morphological, syntactic, punctuation.

Signs of normality literary language: relative sustainability, common usage, universally binding, compliance with the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.

Language norms - historical phenomenon, they change. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargon; other languages. Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually exist in a language at a certain stage of its development, actively used by its carriers. Standard options reflected in dictionaries modern literary language. For example, in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” the accented variants of such words as normalize And normalize, thinking And thinking. Some variants of words are given with corresponding marks: cottage cheese and (colloquial) cottage cheese, contract and (simple) contract If you turn to the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language,” you can follow the fate of these options. Yes, words normalize And thinking become preferred and normalize And thinking are marked “extra.” (acceptable). Regarding cottage cheese And cottage cheese the norm has not changed. Here's an option agreement from the colloquial form has passed into the category of colloquial, has the mark “extra.” in the dictionary.

Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena occurring in language are supported speech practice. The main sources of language norms include works of classical writers And modern writers, language analysis media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, scientific research linguistic scientists. So, compilers dictionary of grammatical variants used sources, stored at the Institute of Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences:

1) grammatical card index fluctuations, which was compiled on materials of fiction during 1961-1972;

2) materials statistical survey according to newspapers of the 60-70s. (the total sample was one hundred thousand options);

3) records music libraries modern colloquial speech;

4) materials answers to “Questionnaire”;

5) data of everyone modern dictionaries, grammars and special research according to grammatical variations.

As a result of the analysis of all the listed material, the most common options, used equally; rarely found or completely disappeared. This allowed scientists to determine what is considered the norm and how it has changed. The indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:

The first degree norm is strict, rigid, not allowing options;

The II degree norm is neutral, allowing equivalent options;

Standard III degree - more flexible, allows the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.

The historical change in the norms of a literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual language speakers. Society development, changes in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the functioning of literature and art lead to constant updating literary language and its norms.

Norms literary language reflect originality Russian national language, contribute to the preservation linguistic tradition, cultural heritage of the past. They protect literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, vernacular. This allows the literary language remain integral, generally understandable, perform its main function - cultural.

Based on the norms adopted and in force at any stage of the existence of a literary language, it is possible to determine what changes in relation to normalization have occurred and what the trends are further development norms of literary language.

book and colloquial speech as varieties of literary language

The Russian national language is heterogeneous in its composition. First of all, it highlights the literary language - an interfering form of the national language. Literary language is the language of state and cultural institutions, school education, radio and television, science, journalism, fiction, that is, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form. Literary language exists in two forms - oral and written.

The main feature of a literary language is normativity. A whole system of norms covers all aspects of the literary language: pronunciation, vocabulary, word formation, morphology, syntax, spelling.

The literary language surpasses all other varieties of the national language in the breadth of its application (functioning). Dialects, urban vernacular, etc. serve mainly the needs of everyday, oral communication, and the literary language is used both as a language of literature and art, and in everyday, and in scientific, and in official business, and in interethnic communication. In other words, literary language is multifunctional.

The literary language is accepted by society as an exemplary form of the national language, and therefore is used in all spheres of communication.

Functional style is a type of literary language that serves a particular area public life and is characterized by a certain originality in the selection and use of linguistic means depending on the conditions and goals of communication.

Colloquial, official business, scientific, journalistic and artistic styles are distinguished.

Each style is characterized by the following features: a) communication conditions; b) the purpose of communication; c) forms (genres) in which it exists; d) a set of linguistic means and the nature of their use.

Conversational (colloquial-everyday) style is a functional style that serves the sphere of everyday private, informal communication.

The main features of the speech situation that forms this style are informality and ease of communication; spontaneity of communication; unprepared speech; close connection with the situation (many elements of the message may not be expressed verbally, since they are directly contained in the situation accompanying speech), the large role of facial expressions and gestures. The goal is communication, exchange of thoughts and impressions.

It manifests itself most clearly in the oral form of speech, and usually dialogical. In writing, the conversational style is used in informal correspondence (private letters, notes) and in diaries. The main features of the conversational style are the relaxed and even familiar nature of speech; its discontinuity and inconsistency from a logical point of view; emotionality and evaluativeness of speech. The conversational style is characterized by the widespread use of everyday and emotionally expressive vocabulary and phraseology, particles, interjections, introductory words, incomplete sentences of various types, word-sentences, addresses, repetitions of words, connecting constructions, etc.

Artistic style (the style of fiction is a functional style that serves the ethical sphere of communication.

The main goal is to master the world according to the laws of beauty, satisfy the aesthetic needs of both the author of a work of art and the reader, and the aesthetic impact on the reader with the help of artistic images. Used in literary works of various kinds and genres: stories, tales, novels, poems, poems, tragedies, comedies, etc. The artistic style differs from other functional styles in that it uses the linguistic means of all other styles, but these means appear here in a modified function - in an aesthetic one. In addition, in artistic speech not only strictly literary, but also extra-literary means of language can be used - colloquial, slang, dialect, etc., which are also not used in the primary function, but are subordinate to an aesthetic task.

Language and its functions

Language is usually defined in two aspects: the first is a system of phonetic, lexical, grammatical means that are a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will, serving as the most important means of communication between people, i.e. language is a social phenomenon associated in its emergence and development with the human collective; the second is a type of speech characterized by certain stylistic features ( Kazakh language, spoken language).

Language, as the main means of human communication, is designed in such a way that it adequately fulfills various functions to the intentions and desires of an individual linguistic personality and the tasks of the human community. In the very general view Language functions mean the use of potential properties of language means in speech for various purposes. Language as a whole is intended for communication between people in a wide variety of situations of human activity, i.e., the main function of language is communication function (communicative function), which consists in the mutual exchange of utterances by members of a linguistic community.

Speech communication involves the speaking subject, the addressee of the speech (real or potential, individual or mass) and what is being reported.

Taking into account the specific goals of communication, in addition to the main function of language - communicative, the following are also distinguished:

An informative function, or a message, expressed in the transmission of some logical content;

The influence function, the implementation of which is:

a) expression of the will of the speaker; b) imparting expressiveness to the statement; c) expression of feelings, emotions.

Russian language in the modern world

The Russian language - it combines the power of the people, its centuries-old history, the culture of many generations and the original traditions of the nation. For every person native language- this is not only a means of communication or transmission of information, but also an invaluable gift that was passed on to him by his ancestors.

Russian language as a cultural phenomenon

It was in Russian that unsurpassed literary works, it was spoken by Mendeleev and Lomonosov, Pushkin and Lermontov, Tchaikovsky and Rimsky-Korsakov.

The Russian language has a rich history; foreign tribes tried to assimilate it many times, but still, like the Russian people, it was able to maintain its independence, strength and power.

The Russian language is extremely multifaceted - it can easily convey all the feelings that arise in the human soul, thoughts and desires.

Modern Russian language

In addition to the basic functions that are inherent in each language, the Russian language has another very important purpose - it is a unifying link for many peoples and nations. Russia is a multinational country, each ethnic group has its own language, but often each of them provides the opportunity to communicate with a specific group of people.

The Russian language erases this obstacle. Also, Russian is the international language of communication between Slavic countries: Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Georgia.

In terms of the total number of people speaking it, the Russian language ranks 6th in the world. More than 200 million people consider it their native language, and the number of people who speak it reaches 360 million. In more than 10 countries, Russian has official status, among them Russia, Belarus, Abkhazia, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan.

It is noteworthy that according to New York law, official documents in the city must be published, along with English, also in Russian, since the Russian diaspora in this city is growing every year. Despite the fact that in many independent countries of the post-Soviet space Russian does not have official status, it is spoken by about 50% of the population.

Unfortunately, among the Russian diaspora there is a tendency towards a decrease in Russian-speaking youth: children in everyday life communicate not in the language of their parents, but in the language in which they are taught at school and communicate in public places. However, among the youth of post-Soviet countries, the Russian language is acquiring a literary connotation.

Generations born during the Soviet system speak mainly in dialects, using a variety of sound distortions. The speech of the younger generation is cleaner, even taking into account modern slang.

Problems of the modern Russian language

At the moment, the Russian language is experiencing a kind of crisis: it is full of profanity, Americanisms and numerous jargons.

Very often there are cases when a distorted language is very actively promoted by the media, as well as by high-ranking officials who make many mistakes in their speech, without attaching absolutely any importance to it, although the role of language in the life of society is enormous and its impact is very strong.

Modern Russian music of the popular genre, which immature younger generations are guided by, is also characterized by illiteracy. Over time, the meaningless set of words inherent in many songs will become an element of communication among young people.

Therefore, the future of the Russian language depends on us. Will it continue to be one of the most powerful and rich languages ​​in the world or will it join the ranks of endangered ones?

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this is a model, this is how it is customary to speak and write in a given linguistic society in a given era. The norm determines what is right and what is not; it recommends some linguistic means and methods of expression and prohibits others.

Types of norms:

Lexical - norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language.

Grammatical ones are divided:

· Word formation – determine the order of combining parts of a word and forming new words.

· Morphological – require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words different parts speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.)

· Syntactic – prescribe the correct construction of basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences. These norms include rules for word agreement and syntactic control, relating parts of a sentence to each other using grammatical forms of words so that the sentence is a literate and meaningful statement

Stylistic – determine the use of linguistic means in accordance with the laws of the genre, features of the functional style and, more broadly, with the purpose and conditions of communication

Spelling norms are the rules for naming words in writing. They include rules for designating sounds with letters, rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of words, rules for the use of capital letters and graphic abbreviations, and rules for hyphenating words.

Punctuation norms determine the use of punctuation marks. Punctuation tools have the following functions:

Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation

Sources

O works of classical writers;

O works of modern writers who continue classical traditions;

O media publications;

O common modern usage;

linguistic research data

O relative stability;

O prevalence;

O common usage;

O universal obligatory;

O compliance with the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.

Types of norms:

Norms of written speech (spelling, punctuation)

Oral speech (pronunciation, stress, intonation norms)

The concept of speech errors:

· logical – a) violation of the logic of thought development b) lack of connections between sentences c) violation of cause-and-effect relationships d) operations with a subject or object e) violations of gender-species relations

· lexical – violation of the norms of word usage and lexical-semantic compatibility of words. a) the use of a word in a meaning that is unusual for it b) a violation of the lexical-semantic compatibility of the word: “The sky was bright” (“to stand” in the meaning of “take place” can only be weather, heat), c) attributing a figurative meaning to a word that does not have it in the literary language system d) inability to distinguish shades of meaning of synonyms e) confusion of meanings of paronyms: His eyebrows raised surprisingly" (instead of: surprised), f) ambiguity that cannot be removed in the sentence: "These lakes live only a few days a year."

· Violation of the requirement for the correct transmission of factual material causes factual errors.

Factual errors are a distortion of the situation depicted in the statement or its individual details, for example: “In the winter forest, the cuckoo crowed loudly.”

· In the presentation, factual errors include various types of inaccuracies:

1) errors in indicating the place and time of the event;

2) in conveying the sequence of actions, cause-and-effect relationships, etc., for example: instead of “Kirovsky Prospect” - in the work “Kyiv Prospekt” or “Kirovsky Village”.

· In an essay, factual errors are

1) distortion of life's truth;

2) inaccurate reproduction of book sources;

3) proper names;

2. Language norm, its role in the formation and functioning of an iterative language

Language norm, its role in the formation and functioning of a literary language

The literary language we use is truly the most precious heritage we received from previous generations. It must be remembered that the culture of literary pronunciation must be consciously instilled and developed. She herself is not given to anyone without special efforts.

A bright and passionate word at all times, as evidenced by the history of the development of human society, had a great influence on people, their views and beliefs, deeds and actions. The person delivering the speech attracts the attention of others. By expressing this or that judgment, the speaker influences the listeners. When speaking, he defends his point of view and proves the correctness of the propositions put forward.

Possession of rhetorical skills and abilities implies knowledge of the rules and adherence to the culture of speech. In turn, speech culture is mastery of language norms...

A norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of elements of a language structure, selected and consolidated by public language practice.

And the greater the number of dialects a literary language unites (and the Russian language unites a huge number of dialects), the more traditional and immobile its norms should be. Language cannot follow changes in spoken language one dialect or another.

The topic will be discussed through clarification of the essence of the language norm using the example of the Russian language, which is one of the largest world languages.

When writing the work, the literature was used by such authors as Avanesov R.I., Belkivo Yu.A., Bryzgunova E.A., Maksimova V.I.yu, Fedosyuk M.Yu. and others.

LANGUAGE NORM AND ITS ROLE IN THE FORMATION AND FUNCTIONING OF MODERN LITERARY LANGUAGE

1.1. The concept of language norm

A linguistic norm (literary norm) is the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of a literary language, i.e., the rules of pronunciation, word usage, and the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means accepted in social and linguistic practice. This is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

The norm is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. There are different norms

Characteristic features of the standard of a literary language: relative stability, prevalence, common use, universal obligatory nature, compliance with the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.

Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena occurring in language and are supported by speech practice. The main sources of language norms include the works of classical and modern writers, analysis of the language of the media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, and scientific research by linguists.

Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional argot, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Linguistic means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be absurd in another (official business communication). The norm does not divide language means into good and bad, but indicates their communicative expediency.

1.2. The role of language norms in the development of a literary language

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. Changes in literary norms are due to the constant development of language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 30-40s. words were used graduate student And graduate to express the same concept: “a student completing a thesis.” Word graduate student was a colloquial version of diplomat. In the literary norm of the 50s and 60s. there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial graduate student now denotes a student, a student during the period of defending his thesis, receiving a diploma. In a word graduate they began to name mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of shows, competitions awarded with a diploma (for example, a diploma winner of the All-Union Piano Competition, a diploma winner of the International Vocal Competition).

The norm of using the word has also changed applicant. In the 30s and 40s. applicants they called both those who graduated from high school and those who entered university, since both of these concepts in most cases refer to the same person. In the post-war years, the word was assigned to those graduating from high school graduate, and the word applicant in this meaning has fallen out of use. Applicants began to be called those who take entrance exams at universities and technical schools.

The history of the word is interesting in this regard dialectical. In the 19th century, it was derived from the noun dialect and meant “belonging to a particular dialect.” The adjective is also derived from the philosophical term dialectic dialectical. Homonyms appeared in the language: dialectical(dialectical word) and dialectical(dialectical approach). Gradually, the word dialectical in the meaning of “belonging to one or another dialect” became outdated, was replaced by the word dialectic, and the word dialectical was assigned the meaning “peculiar to dialectics; based on the laws of dialectics."

Over time, pronunciation also changes. So, for example, in A.S. Pushkin’s letters there are words of the same root, but with different spellings: bankrupt And bankruptcy. How can we explain this? You might think that the poet peed himself or made a mistake. No. Word bankrupt was borrowed in the 18th century from Dutch or French and originally sounded in Russian bankrupt. The derivatives also had a similar pronunciation: bankruptcy, bankrupt, go bankrupt. During the time of Pushkin, a pronunciation variant appeared with “o” instead of “u”. You could talk and write bankrupt And bankrupt. TO end of the 19th century century, pronunciation finally won bankrupt, bankruptcy, bankrupt, go bankrupt. This has become the norm.

Not only lexical, spelling, accentological, but also morphological norms change. Let's take for example the ending of the nominative plural of masculine nouns:

vegetable garden - vegetable gardens, garden - gardens, table - tables, fence - fences, horn - horns, side - sides, bank - banks, eye - eyes.

As we see, in nominative case plural nouns have the ending - s or - A. The presence of two endings is associated with the history of declension. The fact is that in the Old Russian language, in addition to singular and plural, there was also a dual number, which was used when we were talking about two objects: stol (one), stol (two), stol (several). From the 13th century this form begins to collapse and is gradually eliminated. However, traces of it are found, firstly, at the end of the nominative plural of nouns denoting paired objects horns, eyes, sleeves, banks, sides, and secondly, the form of the genitive case singular having two nouns with numerals (two tables, two houses, two fences) historically goes back to the form of the nominative hope of the dual number. This is confirmed by the difference in stress; two hours I haven’t passed an hour, in two rows And out of line.

After the disappearance of the dual number along with the old ending -s in nouns masculine a new ending appeared in the nominative plural -A, which, as a younger one, began to spread and displace the ending -s.

So, in modern Russian language train in the nominative plural it has the ending - V, while in the 19th century the norm was - s. « Trains on the railway they stop for four days due to heavy snowfall,” wrote N.G. Chernyshevsky in a letter to his father on February 8, 1855. But the ending is not always the case - and the old ending wins - s. For example, the word tractor was borrowed in the 20th century from English, in which tractor- suffixal derivative from Latin traho, trahere- “pull, drag.” In the 3rd volume of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, published in 1940, only tractors are recognized as a literary form, and the ending is - O(tractor) is considered colloquial. Twenty-three years later, the 15th volume of the “Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language” was published. In it, both forms (tractors and tractors) are given as equal, and after another twenty years, the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” (1983) ends - O puts it in first place as more common. In other cases, the nominative case form plural on - A remains outside the literary language, classified as incorrect (engineer) or slang (driver).

The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: live, colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargon; other languages.

Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually exist in the language at a certain stage of its development and are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in dictionaries of modern literary language.

For example, in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” the accented variants of such words as normalize and normalize, mark and mark, thinking and thinking are recorded as equal. Some variants of words are given with the corresponding markings: cottage cheese and (colloquial) cottage cheese, agreement and (simple) agreement. If we turn to the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” (M., 1983), then we can follow the fate of these options. Thus, the words “normalize” and “thinking” become preferred, and “normalize” and “thinking” are labeled “additional.” (acceptable). Of the options, labeling and labeling becomes the only correct one to label. Regarding cottage cheese and cottage cheese, the norm has not changed. But the contract option has moved from a colloquial form into a colloquial form, and is marked “additional” in the dictionary.

Shifts in standardization can be clearly seen in the example of the pronunciation of the combination - chn.

Let's present this in a table: .

As you can see, out of 10 words, only two (on purpose, scrambled eggs) retain the pronunciation [shn]; in one case (bakery), preference is given to the pronunciation [shn], but [chn] is also allowed; in two cases, both pronunciations are considered equal (see decently, decently), in the other five the pronunciation [chn] wins, while in a nutshell ( snack bar, toy) it is considered the only correct one, and in three (everyday, creamy, apple) the pronunciation [shn] is also allowed.

The indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:

norm of the 1st degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;

the 2nd degree norm is neutral, allowing equivalent options;

norm 3 degrees - more flexible, allows the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.

The historical change in the norms of literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual language speakers. The development of society, changes in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the improvement of relationships between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.

According to scientists, the process of changing language norms has become especially intensified in recent decades.

A linguistic norm (literary norm) is the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of a literary language, that is, the rules of pronunciation, word usage, and the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means accepted in social linguistic practice. This is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

The norm is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. There are norms: orthoepic (pronunciation), orthographic (writing), word-formation, lexical, morphological, syntactic, punctuation.

Signs of the norm of a literary language: relative stability, common use, universally binding, compliance with the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.

Language norms are a historical phenomenon, they change. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargon; other languages. Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually exist in the language at a certain stage of its development and are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in dictionaries of modern literary language.

Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena occurring in language and are supported by speech practice. The main sources of language norms include the works of classical and modern writers, analysis of the language of the media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, and scientific research by linguists.

The indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:

the first degree norm is strict, rigid, not allowing options;

the II degree norm is neutral, allowing equivalent options;

The III degree norm is more flexible and allows the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.

The historical change in the norms of literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the excitement and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, changes in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the functioning of literature and the arts lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.

The norms of the literary language reflect the originality of the Russian national language and contribute to the preservation of linguistic tradition and the cultural heritage of the past. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to remain holistic, generally understandable, and fulfill its main function - cultural.

Based on the norms adopted and in force at any stage of the existence of a literary language, it is possible to determine what changes in relation to normalization have occurred and what are the trends in the further development of norms of the literary language.

Synonymy and richness of speech

The richness of an individual’s speech is determined by what arsenal of linguistic means he owns and how skillfully, in accordance with the content, topic and purpose of the statement, he uses them in a specific situation. Speech is considered richer the more widely it uses a variety of means and ways of expressing the same thought, the same grammatical meaning, and the less often the same linguistic unit is repeated without a special communicative task.

The richness of any language is evidenced, first of all, by its vocabulary. The vocabulary of an individual depends on a number of reasons (the level of his general culture, education, profession, age, etc.), so it is not a constant value for any native speaker.

The main sources of speech richness at the morphological level are synonymy and variation of grammatical forms, as well as the possibility of their use in a figurative meaning. These include:

1) variation of case forms of nouns: a piece of cheese - a piece of cheese, to be on vacation - to be on vacation, bunkers - bunkers, five grams - five grams and others, characterized by different stylistic colors (neutral or bookish in nature, on the one hand, colloquial - on the other);

2) synonymous case constructions, differing in semantic shades and stylistic connotations: buy for me - buy for me, bring for brother - bring for brother, did not open the window - did not open the window, walk through the forest - walk through the forest;

3) synonymy of short and full forms of adjectives that have semantic, stylistic and grammatical differences: the bear is clumsy - the bear is clumsy, the young man is brave - the young man is brave, the street is narrow - the street is narrow;

4) synonymy of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives: lower - lower, smarter - more intelligent, smartest - the smartest - smarter than everyone else;

5) synonymy of adjectives and oblique case forms of nouns: library book - book from the library, university building - university building, laboratory equipment - laboratory equipment, Yesenin's poems - Yesenin's poems;

6) variation in combinations of numerals with nouns: with two hundred residents - residents, three students - three students, two generals - two generals;

7) synonymy of pronouns (for example, everyone - everyone - anyone; something - something - anything - anything; someone - anyone - anyone; some - someone; some – any – some – some – some);

8) the possibility of using one form of number in the meaning of another, some pronouns or verb forms in the meaning of others, i.e. grammatical-semantic transfers, in which additional semantic shades and expressive coloring usually appear. For example, the use of the pronoun we in the meaning you or you to express sympathy, empathy: Now we (you, you) have already stopped crying (using we in the meaning I). As a result of the analysis of the factual material, we came to the following conclusions... (the use of the future tense in the meaning of the present).

SYNONYMY - identity or similarity of meaning (primarily words, but also morphemes, syntactic structures, phrases, sentences, etc.).

For example: the words brave and courageous, sadness and sadness, extinguish and extinguish; suffixes -tel and -schik (driver, welder) - they have the same meaning “one who does something professionally”; units of different levels of language, for example the word too and the prefix pere- (oversalt, overdo it).

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF SYNONYMS

a) substitution (to avoid repetitions: boy, Petya, he, schoolboy...);

b) clarification (Scarlet, then red streams of young light flowed);

c) expressively stylistic (punishment is neutral, retribution is bookish).

The stylistic function of synonyms is expressed:

a) from the point of view of use in a particular style (waste - neutral, squander - colloquial);

b) from the point of view of attitude towards modern language(together - modern, together - obsolete);

c) from an expressively emotional point of view (punishment is neutral, retribution is bookish). Unlike synonyms, the antonymic series of antonyms consists of two words (bad - good).

According to their morphemic composition, antonyms can be of different roots (evil - good, good - bad) and single-rooted (literate - illiterate).

In a text, synonyms can perform various stylistic functions.

The use of synonyms allows you to avoid repetitions of the same word.

Synonyms allow you to most accurately express a thought, to find a word that conveys the desired shade of meaning: And soon a crowd gathers near the woodshed, as if growing out of the ground... Ochumelov makes a half-turn to the left and steps towards the gathering (A. Chekhov) - in contrast to the neutral noun crowd, the colloquial word gathering expresses a negative assessment.

With the help of synonyms, the meaning of any words can be clarified, especially borrowed or highly specialized ones: Invective, in other words, abusive language on television today does not surprise anyone.

The most important feature of a literary language is its normativity, which is manifested in written and oral form.

Language norm- this is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences); rules for using speech means of a literary language.

Characteristic features of the norm of a literary language: relative stability, prevalence, common use, universal obligatory nature, compliance with use, custom, and the capabilities of the language system.

The main sources of language norms include the works of classical and modern writers, analysis of the language of the media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, and scientific research by linguists.

Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional argot, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function – cultural.

The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Linguistic means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be absurd in another (official business communication).

For example, in Russian you cannot use such forms as “my last name”, “they ran away”; need to talk “my last name”, “they ran.” The norms are described in textbooks, special reference books, as well as in dictionaries (spelling, explanatory, phraseological, synonyms). The norm is approved and supported by speech practice cultured people. A norm in colloquial speech is the result of speech tradition, determined by the appropriateness of using an expression in a given situation. Depending on how clearly the words are pronounced, there are three styles of pronunciation: full, neutral, conversational.

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. Changes in literary norms are due to the constant development of language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15–70 years ago may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 1930-1940s. words were used "graduate" And "diplomat" to express the same concept: "student completing a thesis." In the literary norm of the 1950-1960s. there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial "graduate" now denotes a student, a student during the period of defending his thesis, receiving a diploma. In a word "diplomat" began to name mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of shows, awarded with a diploma (diploma winner of the All-Union Piano Competition).

The indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:

1st degree – strict, tough, not allowing options;

2nd degree – neutral, allows equivalent options;

3rd degree – more flexible, allows the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.

The historical change in the norms of a literary language is a natural phenomenon and does not depend on the will and desire of people. The development of society and the emergence of new traditions lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.