What definition corresponds to the concept of hypothesis. Examples of hypotheses

a component of scientific research or experimental work, which contains an assumption about a possible result and the conditions for achieving it.

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HYPOTHESIS

from Greek hypothesis - basis, assumption), a scientifically based assumption or assumption, the true meaning of which is uncertain; form of science development. G. is one of the scientific methods. research, knowledge of reality. After studying the characteristic features of phenomena, circumstances, conditions, etc., one can make an assumption about the essence of a given phenomenon (or classes of phenomena) and begin constructing a G. The train of thought in this case takes the form of a kind of inference. When constructing a hypothesis, inference proceeds from the presence of a consequence (of this or that fact or phenomenon) to the presence of a foundation (cause), or from the similarity of consequences or signs to the similarity of foundations. The next step is scientific. research consists of testing G. in practice. G. substantiated and confirmed by experience turns into reliable knowledge, into theory. For example, put forward by D.I. Mendeleev and then confirmed by numerous people. G. facts that the properties of chemicals. elements depend on their atomic weights, indicated the reason for the differences in the properties of elements, brought these elements into a harmonious system and gave a powerful impetus to the development of chemistry.

In the process of school During training, students should be explained the meaning of a statement and the conditions for its correct construction and application: a statement must be sufficiently substantiated and internally consistent; contradictions between hypotheticals should not be allowed. and established provisions. The learning process must be structured in such a way that, along with other forms of judgment, students also use statements; max. Problem-based learning opens up opportunities for the use of G. With the help of a system of questions asked by the teacher, students learn to put forward a hypothesis, justify it (if necessary) experimentally or using a system of reasoning, and formulate the resulting conclusion. G. are used mainly in teaching science subjects. cycle, when, when explaining a topic, integral problem tasks are introduced or students are given departments. problematic issues. The use of G. contributes to the development of logical thinking in students. thinking, imagination, mastering the elements of creative cognition. activities, makes learning more active and interesting. Lit.: Kopni and P.V., Epistemology, and logic. fundamentals of science, M., 1974; Formal Logic, Leningrad, 1977; Karpovich V.N., Problem, hypothesis, law, Novosibirsk, 1980, p. 57 -120; Didactics cf. schools, ed. M. N. Skatkina, M., 1982, p. 197-207; X a-lilov U. M., Nekrytnye issues of development of productive thinking of schoolchildren when solving school problems. math. problems, in the book: Ways of formation of creativity. thinking of schoolchildren, Ufa, 1983, p. 74-77. A. N. Zhdan.

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A hypothesis is an argument about a particular phenomenon, which is based on the subjective view of a person directing his actions in some established direction. If the result is not yet known to the person, then a generalized assumption is created, and checking it allows you to adjust the overall focus of the work. This is the scientific concept of a hypothesis. Is it possible to simplify the meaning of this concept?

Explanation in “non-scientific” language

A hypothesis is the ability to predict, predict the results of work, and this is the most important component of virtually every scientific discovery. It helps to calculate future errors and blunders and reduce their number significantly. In this case, a hypothesis generated directly during work can be partially proven. If the result is known, there is no point in the assumption, and then no hypotheses are put forward. This is a simple definition of the concept of hypothesis. Now we can talk about how it is built and discuss its most interesting types.

How is a hypothesis born?

Creating an argument in the human mind is not a simple thought process. The researcher must be able to create and update acquired knowledge, and he must also have the following qualities:

1. Problem vision. This is the ability to show the paths of scientific development, establish its main trends and connect disparate tasks together. Combines the problem vision with the already acquired skills and knowledge, instinct and abilities of a person in research.
2. Alternative character. This trait allows a person to draw interesting conclusions and find something completely new in known facts.
3. Intuition. This term refers to an unconscious process and is not based on logical reasoning.

What is the essence of the hypothesis?

A hypothesis reflects objective reality. In this it is similar to different forms of thinking, but it is also different from them. The main specificity of a hypothesis is that it reflects facts in the material world in a conjectural manner; it does not assert categorically and reliably. Therefore, a hypothesis is an assumption.

Everyone knows that when establishing a concept through the closest genus and difference, it will also be necessary to indicate distinctive features. The closest genus for a hypothesis in the form of any result of an activity is the concept of “assumption”. What is the difference between a hypothesis and a guess, fantasy, prediction, guessing? The most shocking hypotheses are not based on speculation alone; they all have certain characteristics. To answer this question, you will need to identify essential features.

Features of the hypothesis

If we talk about this concept, then it is worth establishing its characteristic features.

1. A hypothesis is a special form of development of scientific knowledge. It is hypotheses that allow science to move from individual facts to a specific phenomenon, generalization of knowledge and knowledge of the laws of development of a particular phenomenon.
2. A hypothesis is based on making assumptions that are associated with a theoretical explanation of certain phenomena. This concept acts as a separate judgment or a whole line of interrelated judgments, natural phenomena. Judgment is always problematic for researchers, because this concept speaks of probabilistic theoretical knowledge. It happens that hypotheses are put forward on the basis of deduction. An example is K. A. Timiryazev’s shocking hypothesis about photosynthesis. It was confirmed, but initially it all started from assumptions in the law of conservation of energy.
3. A hypothesis is an educated guess that is based on some specific facts. Therefore, a hypothesis cannot be called a chaotic and subconscious process; it is a completely logical and logical mechanism that allows a person to expand his knowledge to obtain new information - to understand objective reality. Again, we can recall the shocking hypothesis of N. Copernicus about the new heliocentric system, which revealed the idea that the Earth revolves around the Sun. He outlined all his ideas in the work “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres”, all guesses were based on a real factual basis and the inconsistency of the then still valid geocentric concept was shown.

These distinctive features, taken together, will distinguish a hypothesis from other types of assumption, as well as establish its essence. As you can see, a hypothesis is a probabilistic assumption about the causes of a particular phenomenon, the reliability of which cannot now be verified and proven, but this assumption allows us to explain some of the causes of the phenomenon.

It is important to remember that the term “hypothesis” is always used in a dual sense. A hypothesis is an assumption that explains a phenomenon. A hypothesis is also spoken of as a method of thinking that puts forward some assumption, and then develops the development and proof of this fact.

A hypothesis is often constructed in the form of an assumption about the cause of past phenomena. As an example, we can cite our knowledge of the formation of the solar system, the earth's core, the birth of the earth, and so on.

When does a hypothesis cease to exist?

This is only possible in a couple of cases:

1. The hypothesis receives confirmation and turns into a reliable fact - it becomes part of the general theory.
2. The hypothesis is refuted and becomes only false knowledge.

This can happen during hypothesis testing, when the accumulated knowledge is sufficient to establish the truth.

What is included in the structure of a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is built from the following elements:

• basis - the accumulation of various facts, statements (whether justified or not);
• form - the accumulation of various conclusions that will lead from the basis of a hypothesis to an assumption;
• assumption - conclusions from facts, statements that describe and justify a hypothesis.

It is worth noting that hypotheses are always the same in logical structure, but they differ in content and functions performed.

What can be said about the concept of hypothesis and types?

In the process of the evolution of knowledge, hypotheses begin to differ in cognitive qualities, as well as in the object of study. Let's take a closer look at each of these types.

Based on their functions in the cognitive process, descriptive and explanatory hypotheses are distinguished:

1. A descriptive hypothesis is a statement that speaks about the inherent properties of the object under study. Typically, an assumption allows us to answer the questions “What is this or that object?” or “What properties does the object have?” This type of hypothesis can be put forward in order to identify the composition or structure of an object, reveal its mechanism of action or features of its activity, and determine functional features. Among descriptive hypotheses there are existential hypotheses, which speak about the existence of some object.
2. An explanatory hypothesis is a statement based on the reasons for the appearance of a particular object. Such hypotheses make it possible to explain why a certain event occurred or what are the reasons for the appearance of an object.

History shows that with the development of knowledge, more and more existential hypotheses appear that tell about the existence of a specific object. Next, descriptive hypotheses appear that tell about the properties of those objects, and finally explanatory hypotheses are born that reveal the mechanism and reasons for the appearance of the object. As you can see, there is a gradual complication of the hypothesis in the process of learning new things.

What hypotheses are there for the object of study? There are general and private.

1. General hypotheses help to substantiate assumptions about natural relationships and empirical regulators. They act as a kind of scaffolding in the development of scientific knowledge. Once hypotheses are proven, they become scientific theories and contribute to science.
2. A partial hypothesis is an assumption with justification about the origin and quality of facts, events or phenomena. If there was a single circumstance that caused the appearance of other facts, then knowledge takes the form of hypotheses.
3. There is also such a type of hypothesis as a working one. This is an assumption put forward at the beginning of the study, which is a conditional assumption and allows you to combine facts and observations into a single whole and give them an initial explanation. The main specificity of the working hypothesis is that it is accepted conditionally or temporarily. It is extremely important for the researcher to systematize the acquired knowledge given at the beginning of the study. Afterwards they will need to be processed and a further route to be outlined. A working hypothesis is exactly what is needed for this.

What is a version?

The concept of a scientific hypothesis has already been clarified, but there is another such unusual term - version. What it is? In political, historical or sociological research, as well as in forensic investigative practice, often when explaining certain facts or their combination, a number of hypotheses are put forward that can explain the facts in different ways. These hypotheses are called versions.

There are public and private versions.

1. The general version is an assumption that tells about the crime as a whole in the form of a single system of certain circumstances and actions. This version answers not just one, but a whole series of questions.
2. A partial version is an assumption that explains the individual circumstances of a crime. From private versions, one general version is built.

What standards must a hypothesis meet?

The very concept of a hypothesis in the rules of law must meet certain requirements:

• it cannot have several theses;
• the judgment must be framed clearly and logically;
• the argument should not include judgments or concepts of an ambiguous nature that cannot yet be clarified by the researcher;
• the judgment must include a method for solving the problem in order to become part of the study;
• when presenting an assumption, it is prohibited to use value judgments, because the hypothesis must be confirmed by facts, after which it will be tested and applied to a wide range;
• the hypothesis must correspond to a given topic, subject of research, tasks; all assumptions unnaturally tied to the topic are eliminated;
• the hypothesis cannot contradict existing theories, but there are exceptions.

How is a hypothesis developed?

A person's hypotheses are a thought process. Of course, it is difficult to imagine a general and unified process for constructing a hypothesis: all because the conditions for developing an assumption depend on practical activities and on the specifics of a particular problem. However, it is still possible to identify the general boundaries of the stages of the thought process that lead to the emergence of a hypothesis. This:

• putting forward a hypothesis;
• development;
• examination.

Now we need to consider each stage of the emergence of the hypothesis.

Proposing a hypothesis

To put forward a hypothesis, you will need to have some facts related to a certain phenomenon, and they must justify the probability of the assumption, explain the unknown. Therefore, first there is a collection of materials, knowledge and facts related to a specific phenomenon, which will be further explained.

Based on the materials, an assumption is made about what this phenomenon is, or, in other words, a hypothesis is formulated in a narrow sense. An assumption in this case is a certain judgment that is expressed as a result of processing the collected facts. The facts on which the hypothesis is based can be logically understood. This is how the main content of the hypothesis appears. The assumption must answer questions about the essence, causes of the phenomenon, and so on.

Development and testing

Once a hypothesis is put forward, its development begins. If we assume the assumption made to be true, then a number of definite consequences should appear. In this case, logical consequences cannot be identified with the conclusions of the cause-and-effect chain. Logical consequences are thoughts that explain not only the circumstances of a phenomenon, but also the reasons for its occurrence, and so on. Comparing the facts from the hypothesis with already established data allows you to confirm or refute the hypothesis.

This is only possible as a result of testing the hypothesis in practice. A hypothesis is always generated by practice, and only practice can decide whether a hypothesis is true or false. Testing in practice allows you to transform a hypothesis into reliable knowledge about the process (whether it is false or true). Therefore, one should not reduce the truth of a hypothesis to a specific and unified logical action; When checking in practice, different methods and methods of proof or refutation are used.

Confirmation or refutation of the hypothesis

The work hypothesis is often used in the scientific world. This method allows you to confirm or refute individual facts in legal or economic practice through perception. Examples include the discovery of the planet Neptune, the discovery of clean water in Lake Baikal, the establishment of islands in the Arctic Ocean, and so on. All this was once hypotheses, but now it is scientifically established facts. The problem is that in some cases it is difficult or impossible to proceed with practice, and testing all assumptions is not possible.

For example, now there is a shocking hypothesis that modern Russian is deeper than Old Russian, but the problem is that it is now impossible to hear oral Old Russian speech. It is impossible to verify in practice whether the Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible became a monk or not.

In cases where prognostic hypotheses are put forward, it is inappropriate to expect their immediate and direct confirmation in practice. That is why in the scientific world they use such logical proof or refutation of hypotheses. Logical proof or refutation proceeds in an indirect way, because phenomena from the past or today are learned that are inaccessible to sensory perception.

The main ways of logical proof of a hypothesis or its refutation:

1. Inductive way. More complete confirmation or refutation of a hypothesis and the derivation of certain consequences from it thanks to arguments that include laws and facts.
2. Deductive way. Derivation or refutation of a hypothesis from a number of other, more general, but already proven ones.
3. Inclusion of a hypothesis in the system of scientific knowledge, where it is consistent with other facts.

Logical proof or refutation can take place in the direct or indirect form of proof or refutation.

The important role of hypothesis

Having revealed the problem of the essence and structure of the hypothesis, it is also worth noting its important role in practical and theoretical activity. A hypothesis is a necessary form of development of scientific knowledge; without it it is impossible to understand something new. It plays an important role in the scientific world and serves as the foundation for the formation of virtually every scientific theory. All significant discoveries in science did not arise in a ready-made form; these were the most shocking hypotheses, which sometimes they did not even want to consider.

Everything always starts small. All physics was built on countless shocking hypotheses, which were confirmed or refuted by scientific practice. Therefore, it is worth mentioning some interesting ideas.

1. Some particles move from the future to the past. Physicists have their own set of rules and prohibitions, which are considered to be canon, but with the advent of tachyons, it would seem that all norms have been shaken. A tachyon is a particle that can violate all accepted laws of physics at once: its mass is imaginary, and it moves faster than the speed of light. The theory has been put forward that tachyons can travel back in time. The particle was introduced by theorist Gerald Feinberg in 1967 and declared that tachyons were a new class of particles. The scientist argued that this is actually a generalization of antimatter. Feinberg had a lot of like-minded people, and the idea took root for a long time, however, refutations still appeared. Tachyons have not completely disappeared from physics, but still no one has been able to detect them either in space or in accelerators. If the hypothesis were true, people would be able to contact their ancestors.
2. A drop of water polymer could destroy the oceans. This one of the most shocking hypotheses suggests that water can be transformed into a polymer - this is a component in which individual molecules become links in a large chain. In this case, the properties of water should change. The hypothesis was put forward by chemist Nikolai Fedyakin after an experiment with water vapor. The hypothesis has frightened scientists for a long time, because it was assumed that one drop of an aqueous polymer could turn all the water on the planet into a polymer. However, the refutation of the most shocking hypothesis was not long in coming. The scientist’s experiment was repeated, but no confirmation of the theory was found.

There were a lot of such shocking hypotheses at one time, but many of them were not confirmed after a series of scientific experiments, but they were not forgotten. Fantasy and scientific justification are the two main components for every scientist.

Let us remind you that hypothesis- this is the part that reveals the conditions (circumstances), in the presence or absence of which the action of this rule is possible, that is, it contains indications of specific life circumstances, the conditions under which this rule of law comes into effect.

In particular, a hypothesis can express:

• the timing of the entry into force of the legal norm;
• reaching a certain age of a citizen - subject of law;
• time and place of a particular event;
• “belonging” of a citizen to a particular state;
• state of health on which the possibility of exercising the right depends.

Examples of hypotheses

A minor who has reached the age of sixteen (hypothesis) can be declared fully capable (disposition) if he works under an employment contract (continuation of the hypothesis) (Article 27 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation on emancipation). In the norms of family law there are conditions for marriage: “Marriage is concluded in the civil registry office” (clause I of Article 10 of the RF IC) - a condition of the place or body of marriage.

“The rights and obligations of the spouses arise from the date of registration of the marriage...” (Clause 2 of Article 10 of the Family Code) - a condition for the moment the marriage legal relationship arises.

Classifications and types of hypotheses

Hypothesis - an element of a rule of law indicating the conditions of its operation (time, place, subject composition, etc.), which are determined by consolidation. A hypothesis is a part of a legal norm that indicates life circumstances in the presence of which certain subjects enter into relationships with each other.

Hypotheses can be simple or complex. Simple hypotheses indicate one condition for the implementation of the norm (Article 242 of the Criminal Procedure Code of the Russian Federation (hereinafter referred to as the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation) - the unchanged composition of the court as a condition for considering the case or Article 21 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation - in case of detection of signs of a crime, the prosecutor, investigator, inquiry agency or interrogator take measures to establish the events of the crime, expose the person or persons guilty of committing the crime), complex - under several conditions (clause 1 of Article 72 of the Family Code of the Russian Federation (hereinafter referred to as the Family Code of the Russian Federation) - parents (one of them) can be restored to parental rights in cases where they have changed their behavior, lifestyle and (or) attitude towards raising a child ). Complex hypotheses can be cumulative and alternative.

Cumulative the hypothesis connects the implementation of a norm with the simultaneous presence of several conditions.

Alternative the hypothesis makes the implementation of the norm dependent on the occurrence of one of several conditions.

In addition, in terms of the degree of certainty, hypotheses can be absolutely certain (simple), relatively certain (complex) and even indefinite (“if necessary”), and in terms of the method of presentation - casuistic and abstract.

Rice. 1. Types of hypotheses

According to the degree of complexity (depending on the structure), hypotheses are divided into:

• on homogeneous (simple). They indicate one circumstance, the presence or absence of which is associated with the effect of a legal norm. Example:“The validity period of a power of attorney cannot exceed three years” (clause I of Article 186 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation);
• compound (complex). In them, the validity of a rule of law is made dependent on the presence or absence of two or more circumstances at the same time. Example. Conditions for marriage for those entering into marriage: firstly, mutual voluntary consent of a man and a woman, as well as reaching the age of marriage (Article 12 of the RF IC); secondly, the absence of circumstances preventing marriage (Article 14 of the RF IC - the marital status of one of the spouses, close relationship, as well as incapacity recognized by the court);
• alternative. They contain several conditions, and if any of them is present, this legal norm begins to apply. Example:“In cases where the buyer, in violation of the law, other legal acts or the purchase and sale agreement, does not accept the goods or refuses to accept them, the seller has the right to require the buyer to accept the goods...” (Clause 3 of Article 484 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation);
• complex-alternative. In this case, the hypotheses have both complexity and alternativeness.

Based on the presence or absence of legal facts (circumstances):

• positive - indicate the need for certain conditions for the norm to apply;
• negative - assume that the application of a rule of law is carried out in the absence of the conditions specified in the hypothesis. Thus, failure to provide assistance to a patient by a medical professional is considered a negative hypothesis. For this, a measure of legal liability is established.

According to the form of expression:

• are common. They indicate common features, for example, the general condition for the operation of all criminal law norms - reaching the age of criminal responsibility;
• private. They indicate more specific signs. Thus, the condition for the validity of criminal law norms regulating liability for official crimes is the presence of a special subject, i.e. an official.

Based on the form of expression of the hypothesis in the literature, it is also called abstract And casuistic.

Scientific hypothesis is the initial building block in the scientific method. Many describe this as an "educated guess" based on prior knowledge and observations. While this is true, the definition can be expanded. A hypothesis also includes an explanation of why the hypothesis may be correct.

Hypotheses Basics

A hypothesis is a proposed solution to an unexplained phenomenon that does not fit into current accepted scientific theory. The main idea behind the hypothesis is that there is no predetermined outcome. For a hypothesis to be called a scientific hypothesis, it must be something that can be confirmed or disproved through carefully designed experiments or observations. This is called falsifiability and verifiability. An idea put forward in the mid-20th century by a British philosopher named Karl Popper, according to Encyclopedia Britannica.

The key function at this stage in the scientific method is to derive predictions from hypotheses about the results of future experiments, and then conduct those experiments to see whether they support the predictions.

A hypothesis is usually written in the form of a statement. This statement gives a possibility (if) and explains what can happen because of the possibility (then). The statement may also contain “maybe.”

Here are some examples of hypothesis statements:

• If garlic repels fleas, then a dog that eats garlic every day will not have fleas.
• Bacterial growth can be affected by the level of humidity in the air.
• If sugar causes tooth decay, then people who eat a lot of candy may be more prone to tooth decay.
• If it can damage the eyes, ultraviolet light may be causing blindness.

Hypothesis testing

Please note that all the above statements are verified. The primary feature of a hypothesis is that something can be tested and that those tests can be reproduced.

An example of an untested statement is: “All people fall in love at least once.” The definition of love is subjective. Moreover, it would be impossible to interview every person about their love life. An irrefutable statement can be modified to make it verifiable. For example, the previous statement could be changed to: “If love is an important emotion, some may believe that everyone should fall in love at least once.” With this statement, a researcher can survey a group of people to see how many believe that people should fall in love at least once.

A hypothesis is often examined by multiple scientists to ensure the integrity and validity of the experiment. This process can take years, and in many cases hypotheses do not advance further in the scientific method because it is difficult to gather sufficient supporting evidence.

Null, alternative, two-sided hypotheses

A null hypothesis is the name given to a hypothesis that may be false or have no effect. Often, during a test, a scientist will explore another branch of an idea that might work, called an alternative hypothesis, according to the University of California, Berkeley.

During a test, a scientist may attempt to prove or disprove only the null hypothesis or test both the null and alternative hypotheses. If a hypothesis specifies a particular direction, it is called a one-sided hypothesis. This means that the scientist believes that the result will be either with an effect or without an effect. When a hypothesis is created without predicting an outcome, it is called a two-sided hypothesis because there are two possible outcomes. The result may or may not be effective, but until testing is completed there is no way to know what the result will be.

During testing, a scientist may encounter two types of errors. A Type I error is when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is true. According to the University of California, Berkeley, a Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is not rejected when it is false.

When analyzing the results, the hypothesis can be rejected or changed, but it can never be proven 100% of the time. For example, relativity has been tested many times, so it is generally accepted as true, but there may be an instance that has not been encountered where it is not true. For example, a scientist might form a hypothesis that a certain type of tomato is red. During the research, the scientist then discovers that every tomato of this type is red. Although his results support his hypothesis, there may be a tomato of this type somewhere in the world that is not red. So his hypothesis is correct, but it may not be true 100% of the time.

Evolution of the hypothesis

Most formal hypotheses consist of concepts that can be related and tested. A group of hypotheses come together to form a conceptual framework. Once sufficient data and evidence are collected to support a hypothesis, it becomes a working hypothesis, which is a milestone on the path to becoming a theory. Although hypotheses and theories are often confused, theories are the result of a tested hypothesis. Although hypotheses are ideas, theories explain the results of testing those ideas.

“Theories are how we understand what we observe in the natural world. Theories are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts.”

from Greek hypothesis - basis, assumption) - in psychology, a component of the thinking process that guides the search for a solution to a problem through the tentative addition (extrapolation) of subjectively missing information, without which the result of the solution would not be possible. received. G. may relate to this result itself or to the conditions on which it depends. An important component of solving a problem are statements regarding the principle (“idea”) of the solution.

The use of logic in thinking ensures its selectivity (selectivity), as opposed to a complete logical enumeration of options at each segment of the solution. The more creative the solution to a problem is, the greater the place it takes up. For some problems, the solution of which does not contain sequential logical transformations, the development and verification (test for truth) of logics are the only form of solution.

The difference between the psychological understanding of logic and the logical one is that in logic, logic is considered from a perspective. their falsity or truth when justifying one or another scientific theory, in other words. the result of thinking and the methods of obtaining it (methods of proof and refutation), and in psychology G. is studied as a mechanism of this process, as the movement of thought itself.

The central psychological problem posed in the first studies of g. and which has not lost its relevance is how the process of “generating”, the emergence of certain g. is carried out. No less significant is the question of the “strength” of a g. - the subjective probability of its truth, which, as a rule, does not coincide , with objective probability (arising from objective information on the basis of which the G. is built).

Modern studies of the process of geometric formation show that, regardless of the completeness of the conditions of the problem, if its solution is unknown to the subject, the search area is for him in the beginning. decisions are uncertain. Therefore, he builds the broadest, most general plans in relation to the area in which a solution should be sought in order to establish for himself the direction of the search. The functions of such groups are not necessarily performed by categorical concepts or “general judgments.” "Representative" of the general G. m. b. specific, particular G., but if it is unsuitable, the subject sharply changes the direction of the search and does not put forward homogeneous G. If the G. is confirmed in relation to the search area, instead of general G. the person puts forward more specific ones that do not go beyond the boundaries of this area, and then specific ones . However, this process does not have the character of a consistent judgment about the volume of a group: in solving a problem, there is a continuous alternation of more general and more specific groups, and the more complex the task, the more complex their hierarchy.

The processes of operating with G. depend on the person’s experience and knowledge related to the task, the subjective attitudes of the individual, the quality of self-regulation of thinking, in particular its flexibility or inertia.

In G.'s operation, intuitive and discursive processes of thinking interact; the process of putting forward a hypothesis can be carried out intuitively, without awareness of its logical foundations (see Intuition), and its verification occurs in the form of logical discourse analysis. The opposite is also possible: G. itself is a rational component of the decision, and its verification is based on an intuitive conclusion. At the initial stages of solving a complex problem, intuitive logics are usually put forward, making it possible to outline the search area; at the final stages of the solution, the role of logically sound and controllable logics increases; in solving the problem, a transition is made from plausible reasoning to evidence; Without proof, the problem cannot be considered finally solved. See also Heuristics.